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as well as in Greece itself, are all rigorously constructed upon
this principle, as may be seen in the Parthenon at Athens, a
representation of which was given in page 129 of this volume.
The Etruscans first carried the arts into Italy, and were the
instructors of the Romans even before the Greeks. This
ingenious people constructed the first Roman edifices, and built
their arches and vaults as they still exist in the Cloaca Maxima,
or Great Sewer of Rome, and the Mamertine Prison, which may
be considered as the foundation of a style of architecture pecu-
liarly Roman. Before the period of the Etruscans, the Pelasgians
had attempted to construct arches; but
they went no farther than the pointed arch,
the difficulty of centering an arch having
completely arrested their progress.
fact, their pointed arches, formed by suc-
cessive courses of horizonal stones, could
only be considered as the two abutments
of a semi-circular arch approaching each
other. This fact is established by an exa-
mination of the gate of Arpino, the build-
ings of Alba Fucensis, of Tiryns, and of the
Treasury of Atreus at Mycena. The Ro-
mans, on the other hand, after the example
of the Etruscans, entered fully into the
construction of the semi-circular arch; and
this new principle led to the grandest re-
sults. By this means, the architects and
builders of old Rome were enabled to use
materials which were of a moderate size,
and easy to raise to great heights; and
to construct immense vaults, which agreed
with the arch in their circular form.

soles, or projecting ornaments in stone, fitted so as to receive vertical rods, upon which was spread a velarium or large curtain, covering the seats and the arena, in order to defend the spectators from the heat of the sun. Thus we see how the long corridors, the numerous flights of steps, the cells for animals, and the aqueducts, required arches and vaults of all dimensions and of all forms. These edifices are unquestionably such as do the greatest honour to the architectural and constructive genius of the Romans. Many of them still remain, and some are in such a high state of preservation as

ROMAN AQUEDUCT.

to enable us to examine their minutest details. The finest example is the famous Amphitheatre of Flavian at Rome, which was capable of containing more than 100,00 spectators; those of Pola, in Istria, of Nîmes and Arles, in France, and of Thysdrus in Africa.

But although the Romans displayed their greatest science in the building of amphitheatres, they exhibited their greatest art in the construction of their public baths; for in these the building of arches and vaults was most extensively employed. In those of Diocletian and Caracalla at Rome, and that of Julian at Paris, we see arches of such large dimensions, and vaults of such great extent, that we are struck with astonishment and admiration at works so noble in structure and so bold in design.

As to the origin of the arch, we have attributed it to the Romans, or rather to their original instructors, the Etruscans.

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been found buried in the tombs of Thebes, in Egypt; and that Mr. Hoskins describes one eight feet six inches in span, which was regularly formed. Among the ruins of Meroë, the capital of ancient Ethiopia, he found a semi-circular arch of stone covering a portico, and at Gibel el Berkel a pointed arch, which was over the entrance to a pyramid. Under these circumstances, it appears remarkable that the use of the arch in building should not have passed from Ethiopia, or from Thebes itself, into the ordinary architecture of Egypt. As neither the latter country nor Greece adopted the arch in their constructions, the merit of introducing it into general architecture must still remain with the Romans; for although Pericles adorned the city of Athens with splendid edifices, it was left for the Romans to construct a stone arch over the small river Cephisus, upon the most frequented road to that city. It appears that the construction of the arch was also known to the Chinese long before it made its appearance in Europe. It covers the gateways in their great wall; it is seen in the construction of their sepulchral monuments; and it was employed

The period of Roman invention is one of the most brilliant | But it must be mentioned that brick arches are said to have in the history of art. Of the many edifices with which the Romans covered their provinces, there still remains a sufficient number to prove the excellence of their architectural system, and the perfection to which they brought the science and skill of the practical builder. Arches and vaults raised by them of rough stone and bricks, and even of rubble, preserve their primitive solidity to this day. Their temples were constructed, like those of the Greeks, on the principle of the architrave; but the remains of their aqueducts, their baths, those edifices so imposing from their great extent, their triumphal arches, their circuses, and their theatres, show us how extensively the Romans employed the arch and the vault in their edifices. But of all their remarkable works, the amphitheatres were those in which the multiplied and varied use of these most frequently occur; those immense buildings in the elliptical form, with rows of seats placed round and round, and rising gradually above one another, in which the spectators assembled to witness their barbarous spectacles. The style of architecture employed in these buildings was of a vigorous and substantial character, adapted to its use. Two or three stories of immense arcades, or rows of arches, divided by piers ornamented with columns or pilasters, admitted light into the corridors or long passages which surrounded the edifice. Other galleries, more or less numerous, and parallel to the preceding, were constructed below the seats. From floors on a level with these galleries, or by numerous flights of steps, they were admitted to the seats by entrances so arranged as to prevent crowding and confusion. Four open passages disposed along the axes of the building, which, as we have said, was in the form of an ellipse, gave admittance to the arena from without; round the arena were placed the cells which contained the animals. Behind these cells were constructed, also, corridors or long passages communicating with every part of the building, and placed under the first row of arches, or the first row of seats for the spectators.

AMPHITHEATRE OF THYSDRUS, IN AFRICA.

The rain-water was carried off by water-courses and drains, which ran into an aqueduct passing under the arena; while other aqueducts were employed to inundate it when nautical entertainments were brought before the spectators. At the top of the building, and all round it outside, were placed con

in the construction of their bridges. Kircher, in his account of China, speaks of some three and four miles long, and of an arch of the incredible span of 600 feet.

There are numerous specimens of Roman architecture in France, the ancient Gaul, which, by their stability and the excellence of their construction, have long survived the era of their architects. One of the finest of these is the bridge over the Vi dourle, at Sommières, in the department of the Gard. It is composed of seventeen arcke, of which nine have been encroached upon by the town, and are sunk under the principal street, so that the water now flows under eight arches only. Every pier is hollowed out into a small arch, in order to increase the water-way during floods. This bridge is supposed to have been built in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.

The bridge of Ceret, over the Tech, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, is a remarkable specimen of the age in which it was supposed to be built, which ascends to the time of the Visigoths, and is still within the domain of ancient Roman history. The middle arch is about 154 feet, and the abutments are relieved by arches, which contribute to the elegance and beauty of the whole.

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in the printed forms. The forms used for the accents in writing are identical with those in the printed books-viz., the three accents (""), the two breathings(), the ista subscription (,), and the diæresis ("). To those who are acquainted with the Modern Greek pronunciation no difficulty will exist, as

the sound of the voice alone is sufficient to indicate the place where the accent ought to fall. We can only refer those who have not this knowledge to the rules for the accentuation of ancient Greek, which obtain equally in the modern Greek grammar.

One word of warning to the student-write distinctly rather than rapidly. It is difficult enough to decipher the handwriting of many who write the ordinary Italian hand indifferently, but

A B SD & Z HD IK R M N Вое

Z

ON P F TV PX Yes W.
РЕПИ

aby se J n den z p r Zo w post v xxy w -35,35,07,0v,Kai.
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In we
Kurzartivos Adūrai Képnupa Zánvrdos Nordiror Nélpos
Iwarrns Zwupidur Mat daros Nálpar Ajjos Zpevery

THE MODERN GREEK WRITTEN ALPHABET: CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS.-PROPER NAMES IN MODERN GREEK WRITING.

configuration of many of the letters, the joining together of every letter in a word, as is done in the Italian current hand, is quite impossible. The rules for the breaks thus occurring can only be acquired by practice, as they are quite arbitrary, each writer joining his letters as best suits the peculiar style of his own handwriting.

We give the three principal abbreviations-viz., σT, ov, Kal. Many others are to be found in the correspondence of old men,

VOL. II.

it is infinitely more troublesome to understand modern Greek when written hastily and illegibly.

We have thought it necessary to introduce the accompanying specimens of Modern Greek Handwriting for the benefit of such of our readers who may be in Greek mercantile houses in this country, or engaged in mercantile transactions with Greek firms abroad. We would recommend those, however, who a" not likely to require a knowledge of Greek handwriting

51

chaussée ?

étage.

business purposes, but are merely studying Greek for the sake | Préférez-vous demeurer au rez-de- Do you prefer to live on the ground of availing themselves of the riches that lay heaped up in the storehouses of ancient Greek literature, to use the printed characters; as, although the writer's progress may be in a measure slow, when compared with the rate at which he writes his ordinary hand, the adoption of the ordinary printed forms will impart to his handwriting those most excellent and desirable qualities in handwriting of any kind-legibility, neatness, and distinctness.

The following is the letter as given in Greek handwriting in the preceding page, in printed characters, with the pronunciation under every word:

Φίλτατε Κύριε Phil'-ta-te Ku'-r-ie

Σας ζητῶ συγγνώμην διὰ τὸ βάρος σᾶς δίδω ἀλλὰ ὧν Sas zee'-to sug-gno'-meen di-a toh bar-ros sas di'-do al'-la own ἐπασχολομένος καὶ μὴν δυνάμενος νὰ ἐξέλθω ἐκ τῆς οἰκίας e-pas-ko-lom'-en-os kai meen du-nam'-en-os na ex-el'-tho ek tees oi-ki-as μου παρακαλῶ νὰ ἐλθῆτε εἰς ἀνταμπωσίν μου σήμερον τὸ mou pa-ra-kal'-o na el-thee'-te eis an-tam-po'-sin mou see-me-ron toh ἑσπέρας περὶ τὰς ἑπτὰ ὥρας. Μένω Πρόθυμος. hes'-per-as per'-ri tas hep'-ta ho'-ras. Me'-no Pro-thu-mos.

The translation of the above letter in English is as follows:

Dear Sir, I beg pardon for the trouble I give you, but being unwell and unable to go out of my house, I request (you to be good enough) to come to visit me this evening at about seven o'clock.

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Kwvotavtīvos (kone-stan-sti'-nos), Constantine; 'A0ñvou (a-the'nai), Athens; Kepêvpa (ker-ku'-ra), Corcyra, or Corfu; Zakuvos (za-kun'-thos), Zante; Aovdivov (lon-di'-non), London; Пεтрos (pet'-ros), Peter; Iwávvns (i-o-an'-nees), John; Zipidov (spi-ris done), Spiridon; Marbatos (mat-thai-os), Matthew; Harpai (patrai), Patras; Apyos (ar'-gos), Argos; Zuúpvn (smur'-ne), Smyrna.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.-XXXIX. SECTION LXXV.-REGIMEN OR GOVERNMENT OF VERBS (§ 129).

1. MANY verbs come together in French without prepositions, which are in English joined by them. Many others are connected in French by prepositions different from those connecting the corresponding verbs in English. No. satisfactory general rules can be given on this point. We shall give in Part II. of these Lessons [§§ 130, 131, 132] copious lists of the verbs in general use, with the prepositions which follow them, when they come before other verbs. We have also hitherto noted the prepositions usually placed after the verbs introduced in our lessons.

2. The student will recollect that a verb, following another verb (not avoir or être) or a preposition (not en) must be in the infinitive.

3. The following verbs, extracted from the list, § 130, although they, in English, take a preposition before another verb, do not

tako one in French :-
Aller, 1, ir., to go.
Compter, 1, to intend.
Courir, 2, ir., to run.
Daigner, 1, to deign.
Désirer, 1, to desire.

Devoir, 3, to owe.

Envoyer, 1, ir., to send. *Espérer, 1, to hope.

Falloir, 3, ir., to be ne

cessary.

Mener, 1, to lead, take.
Penser, 1, to think.
Pouvoir, 3, ir., to be
able.

Préférer, 1, to prefer.
Savoir, 3, ir., to know.
"Souhaiter, 1, to wish.
Valoir mieux, 3, ir., to

be better.
Venir, 2, ir., to come.
Prétendre, 4, to pre- Vouloir, 3, ir., to wish,

tend.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Comptez-vous diner avec nous ?
Je vais déjeuner chez mon père.
Ne voulez-vous pas donner à man-
ger à ce chien ?
Désirez-vous
chambre ?

will.

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monter dans ma Do you wish to go up to my room ?

Je préfère descendre chez votre I prefer to go down to your father's. père.

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Demeure-t-il en haut ou en bas? Does he live above or below?

• May also take the preposition "De" before an infinitive,

Je désire demeurer au premier I wish to live on the first story.
Nous préférons louer le second We prefer to take the second story.
étage.
Nous espérons louer une chambre We hope to rent a room on the second
au second.
story.

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1. Combien de chambres comptez-vous louer? 2. Nous comptons louer une salle au rez-de-chaussée et deux cabinets au troisième. 3. Ne préférez-vous pas louer une chambre-coucher au second? 4. Nous préférons demeurer au rez-dechaussée. 5. Ne pouvez-vous rester à dîner avec nous aujourd'hui ? 6. Je vous remercie, je préfère venir demain. 7. M. votre père viendra-t-il demain déjeuner avec nous ? 8. II compte venir demain, de bonne heure. 9. Que voulez-vous leur dire ? 10. Je veux les prier de me faire ce plaisir. 11. Comptez-vous faire ce plaisir à mon frère ? 12. J'espère le lui faire. 13. Préférez-vous demeurer en haut ou en bas? 14. Nous préférons demeurer en bas. 15. Que pensez-vous faire de ce jeune faisan? 16. Nous pensons l'envoyer à M. votre beau-frère. 17. Ne savez-vous pas jouer du violon? 18. Je sais en jouer. 19. Mlle. votre cousine sait-elle toucher le piano? 20. Elle sait toucher le piano et pincer la harpe. 21. Ne savez-vous pas écrire ? 22. Nous savons lire, écrire et compter. 23. Savez-vous jouer de la guitare ? 24. Nous ne savons pas en jouer. 25. Nous souhaitons trouver un apparte ment au rez-de-chaussée. EXERCISE 146.

1. Does your brother-in-law intend to rent the ground floor? 2. He intends to rent two rooms on the second story. 3. How many rooms does your son intend to take? 4. He intends to take two rooms on the second story. 5. Does he prefer to live on the second floor? 6. He prefers to live on the ground floor. 7. Does your father wish to come to dinner with us to-morrow? 8. He intends to come to-morrow at two o'clock. 9. Do you prefer to live up stairs or down stairs? 10. I prefer to live above. 11. Does your sister know how to play on the piano? 12. She knows how to play on the piano. 13. Where do you intend to live (demeurer)? 14. We intend to live at your father's. 15. Will you go up to my room? 16. I will go down to your father's. 17. Do you wish to live on the ground floor? 18. I wish to live on the second floor. 19. Is it necessary to stay here? 20. It is not necessary to stay here. 21. What do you think of doing with (de) your book? 22. I think of giving it to my son. 23. What do you wish me to say to that gentleman ? 24. I wish to beg him to do me a favour. 25. Do you wish to send that pheasant to your mother? 26. I wish to send it to her, she is ill. 27. Cannot your sister play on the violin? 28. She cannot play on the violin, but she can play on the guitar. 29. Does your sister wish to live up stairs? 30. She prefers living down stairs. 31. Will you not do me that favour? 32. I will do it with pleasure. 33. Cannot your brother stay and dine with us to-day? 34. He has promised my father to come and dine with him. 35. Our friend knows how to read, write, and cipher.

SECTION LXXVI.-GOVERNMENT OF VERBS (continued). 1. Many verbs in French are joined with other verbs follow. ing, by means of the preposition de, of, where the corresponding verbs in English either take no preposition, or one other than of Besides avoir besoin, etc. [Sect. XX. 4], the following verbs, er tracted from the list, § 132, belong to this class :-Achever, to finish. Avoir tort, to be wrong. Brûler, to burn, to long. Cesser, to cease.

Dire, to say.
Dispenser, to dispense.
Empêcher, to prevent.
Eviter, to avoid.

Commander, to com- Se flatter, to flatter

mand.

Conseiller, to advise.

Défendre, ta forbid.

one's self.

Jurer, to sweat.

Manguer, to fai..

Menacer, to threaten,
Négliger, to neglect.
Prier, to beg.

Promettre, to promise.
Proposer, to propose.
Refuser, to refuse.

Supplier, to entroak.
Trembler, to tremble.

RESUME OF EXAMPLES.

Pourquoi n'achevez-vous pas d'apprendre ce métier?

Nous brûlons de continuer nos
études.

Il ne cesse de nous tourmenter.
Me défendez-vous de faire du bien
à cet homme ?

Ne négligez pas de lui faire une
visite.

Me promettez-vous de faire une visite à mon ami ?

to pay him. 31. I have forgotten to pay you. 32. Do not Why do you not finish learning that neglect to write to me. 33. Tell him to go to my father. 34. Do not cease to work. 35. Tell him to come on Christmas Eve. 36. I have told him to come the day after.

trade?

We burn to continue our studies.

He does not cease tormenting us.
Do you forbid my doing good to that

man?

Do not neglect paying him a visit.

Do you promise me to pay a visit to
my friend?

Je vous prie d'aller tout droit chez I beg you will go straight home.

vous.

Je vous conseille de venir par le I advise you to come by rail. chemin de fer.

Ne manquez pas de lui faire mes
compliments.

L'avez-vous menacé de le frapper?
J'ai refusé de lui faire crédit.
Me
proposez-vous de lui confier
cet argent?

Je vous conseille de le lui confier.
J'évite de lui reprocher ses fautes.

Arros-er, 1, to water.
Arrosoir, m., watering-
pot.

Au contraire, on the
contrary.
Corrig-er, 1, to correct.
Faire part, to commu-
nicate.

Do not fail to present my compli
ments to him.

Have you threatened to strike him?
I refused to give him credit.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.

EXERCISE 57 (Vol. I., page 295).

1. Does General N. put on his uniform? 2. He does not put it on. 3. Why do you not wear your black cloak? 4. I am afraid of spoiling it. 5. Do you put on your satin shoes every morning? 6. I put them on Sundays only. 7. It is twelve; does the servant lay the cloth? 8. He does not lay it yet, he is going to lay it immediately. 9. Is not dinner ready? 10. Does the servant take away the things? 11. He does not take them away yet, he has no time to take them away. 12. Do you take off your coat when you are warm? 13. I take it off when I am too warm. 14. Have you a cloth coat made? 15. I have a cloth coat and a black satin waistcoat made. 16. Are you not having your velvet slippers mended? 17. Do you not have a cellar

Do you propose me to trust him with dug? 18. I have a large cellar dug. 19. What does the druggist

this money?

I advise you to trust him with it.

I avoid to reproach him with his
faults.

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1. Pourquoi ne cessez-vous pas de lire? 2. J'aurais tort de cesser de lire avant de savoir ma leçon. 3. Avez-vous défendu à votre jardinier d'arroser ces fleurs? 4. Au contraire, je lui avais commandé de les arroser. 5. Pourquoi a-t-il négligé de le faire? 6. Parce qu'il a oublié d'apporter l'arrosoir. 7. Que désire faire M. F.? 8. Il brûle de continuer l'étude de la médecine. 9. N'avez-vous pas tort de faire des visites à ce monsieur ? 10. J'aurais tort de le négliger. 11. N'avez-vous pas refusé de rendre ce service à votre ennemi ? 12. J'aurais eu tort de refuser de le lui rendre. 13. Quelle voie nous avezvous conseillé de prendre? 14. Je vous ai conseillé de prendre la voie du bateau à vapeur. 15. Avez-vous menacé de frapper cet enfant ? 16. Je l'ai menacé de le corriger. 17. Avez-vous refusé de vendre des marchandises à mon frère ? 18. J'ai refusé de lui en vendre à crédit. 19. Avez-vous dit à mon fils de se rendre à la maison ? 20. Je l'ai prié d'y aller tout droit. 21. Vous proposez-vous de venir la veille de Noël? 22. Nous nous proposons de venir le lendemain. 23. Votre compagnon se propose-t-il de garder le secret ? 24. Il se propose de faire part de cela à tout le monde.

EXERCISE 148.

mean? 20. He means that he wants money. 21. Do you know what that means? 22. That means that your brother is angry with you. 23. Have you a wish to put on your cloak? 24. I intend to put it on, for I am very cold. 25. I am going to take it off, for I am warm. EXERCISE 58 (Vol. I., page 295).

1. Otez-vous votre habit? 2. Je n'ôte pas mon habit je le mets. 3. Otez-vous votre manteau quand vous avez froid? 4. Quand j'ai froid je le mets. 5. Votre petit garçon ôte-t-il ses souliers et ses bas? 6. Il les ôte, mais il va les remettre. 7. Cette petite fille metelle le couvert ? 8. Elle met le couvert, tous les jours à midi. 9. Otet-elle le couvert, après le diner? 10. Elle ôte le couvert tous les jours. 11. Avez-vous l'intention de faire faire un habit? 12. J'ai l'intention de faire faire un habit. 13. Je vais faire faire un habit et un gilet. 14. M. votre frère fait-il raccommoder ses bottes ? 15. Il les fait raccommoder. 16. M. votre fils que veut-il dire? 17. Je ne sais pas ce qu'il veut dire. 18. Est-il fâché contre moi ou contre mon frère? 19. Il n'est fâché ni contre vous ni contre M. votre frère. 20. A-t-il thicaire a-t-il besoin d'argent? peur de gâter son habit? 21. Il n'a pas peur de le gâter. 22. L'apo23. Il n'a pas besoin d'argent. 24. Mlle. votre sœur a-t-elle ôté mon livre de la table? 25. Elle ne l'a pas ôté. 26. Pourquoi ôtez-vous vos souliers ? 27. Je les ôte parcequ'ils me gênent. 28. Avez-vous l'intention de faire bâtir une maison? 29. J'ai l'intention d'en faire bâtir une. 30. Le tailleur gâte-t-il votre habit? 31. Il ne le gâte pas. 32. Qui gâte vos habillements? 33. Personne ne les gâte. 34. Quel chapeau portez-vous ? 35. Je porte un chapeau noir. EXERCISE 59 (Vol. I., page 315).

1. What weather is it to-day? 2. It is very beautiful weather. 3. Is it very fine weather to-day? 4. It is cloudy and damp weather. 5. Does it rain much this morning? 6. It does not rain yet, but it is going to rain. 7. Is it windy or foggy? 8. It is not windy. 9. The fog is very thick. 10. How many persons are there in the assembly? 11. There are more than two hundred persons. 12. Are there not many manuscripts in your library? 13. There are not many, there are only fifty-five. 14. Is it too cold for you in this room? 15. It is neither too cold nor too warm. 16. Is there much hay in your stable? 17. There is enough for my horse. 18. Do you remain at home wher it rains? 19. When it rains, I remain at home; but when it is fine weather, I go to my cousin's. 20. Is there any meat in the market? 21. There is much, there is game also. 22. There is veal, mutton, and poultry. 23. Are there not also vegetables and fruit? 24. There are none. 25. There are some also.

EXERCISE 60 (Vol. I., page 315).

1. Avez-vous froid ce matin? 2. Je n'ai pas froid, il fait chaud ce matin. 3. Fait-il du brouillard ou du vent. 4. Il ne fait ni brouillard ni vent, il pleut à verse. 5. Va-t-il pleuvoir ou neiger? 6. Il va geler, il fait très froid. 7. Il fait du vent et du brouillard. 8. Y a-t-il quelqu'un chez M. votre frère aujourd'hui ? 9. Mon frère est à la

1. Have you forbidden my cousin to speak to the gardener ? 2. I have not forbidden him to speak to him. 3. Has your mother ordered the gardener to water her roses (roses) ? 4. She has ordered him to water them. 5. Has he forgotten to do it? 6. He has neglected to do it, he has not forgotten it. 7. What conveyance will you take to go to Paris? 8. I advise you to take the railroad. 9. Have you told (à) your son to take the steamboat? 10. No, Sir, I have told him to take the stagecoach (diligence, f.). 11. Is not your brother wrong to neglect paying a visit to his brother-in-law? 12. He is wrong to neg. maison, et ma sœur est à l'église. 10. Y a-t-il de la viande au marché? lect it. 13. Does not that young German long to read that letter? froid dans cette chambre pour Mlle. votre sœur? 11. Il y a de la viande et de la volaille. 12. Fait-il trop chaud ou trop 13. Il ne fait pas si 14. He longs to continue his studies. 15. Do you propose to chaud dans cette chambre que dans la bibliothèque de M. votre frère. trust him with that money? 16. I propose to trust him with 14. Y a-t-il de bons livres anglais dans la bibliothèque de Mlle. votre it. 17 Do you neglect to reproach him with his faults? 18. sœur? 15. Il y en a de bons. 16. Y a-t-il des pêches et des prunes dans I avoid to reproach him with them. 19. Have you threatened votre jardin? 17. Il y en a beaucoup. 18. Restez-vous chez M. votre to punish your son? 20. I have threatened to strike him. 21. frère quand il neige? 19. Quand il neige nous restons à la maison. 20. Do not fail to present my compliments to my sister's friends. 22. I will not fail (je n'y manquerai pas). 23. Have you refused to sell him goods ? 24. I have refused to sell him goods on credit. 25. Which mode of travelling do you advise me to take ? ne grêle pas, il gèle. 28. Quel temps fait-il ce matin? 29. Il fait un 26. I advise you to take the railroad. 27. Do you temps superbe. 30. Fait-il trop chaud? 31. Il ne fait ni trop chaud ni forbid him to come? 28. I have forbidden his writing. 29t trop froid. 32. Va-t-il geler? 33. Il va neiger. 34. Neige-t-il tous les Have you failed to pay your gardener 30. I have not failed jours 35. Il ne neige pas tous les jours, mais il neige très-souvent.

Y a-t-il des dames chez Madame votre mère? 21. Vos deux sœurs y sont aujourd'hui. 22. Avez-vous le temps d'aller les chercher? 23. Je n'ai pas le temps ce matin. 24. Votre cheval est-il à l'écurie? 25. 26. Grêle-t-il ce matin ? 27. II

Il n'y est pas, il est chez mon frère.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.—XXVI. CONSTRUCTION OF A MAP OF EUROPE (continued). In our last lesson we gave our readers ample instructions for making a conical projection of a map of Europe; and to enable them to finish the map by marking in the chief geographical features, and cities, and towns of this continent, we commence in the present lesson a list of the names of the principal places in Europe, the countries in which they are situated, and their respective latitudes and longitudes, so that the student may be enabled to fix for himself the proper position of each in his projection, and thus learn geography in the most effective manner possible, while he is at the same time acquiring the power of constructing maps in general.

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The student must remember that the position of the point (marked м in Fig. 14, page 356, and F in Fig. 17, page 356) from which the concentric arcs are described which form the parallels of latitude in a conical projection, varies according to the point where the circumscribing cone is supposed to touch the sphere or the points where it is supposed to enter the sphere. For example, it is only for the map of Europe, or for any part of the zone that surrounds the sphere between the parallels of 35° and 75° N. latitude, that the point from which the parallels of latitude are described can be taken at 5° beyond the pole for projections on a small scale-or, more accurately, at 4° 30′ 30′′ for projections on a large scale; because, in the construction of a projection for any part of the sphere lying in the zone included between these parallels north and south, and bounded by any two meridians east and west, the circumscribing cone on which the portion of the sphere to be drawn is projected, is supposed to enter the sphere in the parallels of 45° and 65° N. latitude, two parallels equidistant from the parallels that bound the zone on the north and south. If the student will take the trouble to draw for himself a quadrant of a circle graduated from 0° to 90° in spaces of 5°, as in Fig. 14 (page 356), and then draw a series of straight lines, like L M, entering the sphere at pairs of points, 5, 10, 15, or 20 degrees distant from each other, as he may determine, he will find that the nearer to the pole are the points in which the circumscribing cone enters the sphere, the less is the distance beyond the pole of the point from which the concentric arcs representing the parallels of latitude are to be described, and that this point becomes farther and farther removed from the pole as the points through which the circumscribing cone enters the sphere approach nearer and nearer to the equator. It is evident, then, that when we are making a conical projection of any portion of the sphere near the equator, or any portion in higher latitudes on a large scale, it would be a difficult matter to draw the arcs representing the parallels of latitude from the point representing the common centre of the circles of whose circumferences these arcs form a part, owing to the great length of the radii with which the arcs must be described. It would be perfectly prac ticable, it is true, if we had our paper pinned down at the end of a long table or board several feet in length, and also had a beam compass wherewith to describe D the required ares representing the parallels of latitude; but as these appliances are too costly to be bought by any but professional draughtsmen and map engravers, a method has been found by which parallels of latitude can be represented by a number of short straight lines, arranged in such a manner as to correspond very nearly with the circular arcs that would properly represent the parallels of latitude. Our readers shall be put in possession of this method of drawing parallels of latitude when we show them how to make a projection for the whole or any part of the British Isles.

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the projection that he has made of a map of Europe, and on which he is desirous of fixing the position of places given in our list. First, a strip of cartridge-paper or thin Bristol board must be taken, such as is represented by ABCD in Fig. 18, and in this an open space, a b c d, must be cut out with a sharp penknife, equal in length to nine spaces of five degrees each of the length assumed in the projection to be equal to five degrees, and just wide enough to include the whole of a strip of the map from north to south contained between any two contiguous meridians, which, it will be remembered, have been traced on the meridian at the distance of five degrees of longitude apart.

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Having done this, paste at the back of the cardboard

a strip of tracing-paper, taking care to strain it tightly; and then place the strip over the projection, so that the line a b in Fig. 18 falls exactly on the line GH in Fig. 17; the line FE in the former coinciding with the line FE in the latter. Now, thrust a draw. ing-pin through the coinciding points, F, F, in each figure, and moving the strip a little to the right or left, so as to get the meridians of 15° and 20°, or the meridians of 20° and 25°, in Fig. 17, showing through the clear tracing-paper in the position shown by the two thick meridian lines in Fig. 18, trace the parallels from 75° to 30°, and then subdivide the whole, as shown by the dotted parallels and meridians in the figure. The strip of cardboard will turn about the point F as a centre, and on being turned so as to bring the subdivided tracing-paper over any strip of the projection bounded by two contiguous meridians traced on the projection at a distance of five degrees apart, will exhibit the strip beneath divided into spaces each measuring a degree of latitude or longitude each way. By moving the strip of cardboard as required, the position of any place can be fixed on the projec tion with a pin or any sharp-pointed instrument.

We will give the reader another method of fixing the position of places according to their latitude or longitude on his projection. Let him take a strip of cardboard similar to that which is shown in Fig. 18, but suited, of course, as far as length is concerned, to the extent of his map from north to south. A portion of the strip of cardboard marked G H CK in the figure must then be cut clean away, the line G K being in the straight line drawn through E from the point F, the centre from which the concentric arcs representing the degrees of latitude have been described, and about which the strip of cardboard must work. Having secured the strip as before with a drawing-pin passing through F, and also precisely through the point on the paper underneath from which the parallels of latitude have been described, let the edge of the card. board, represented by G H, be laid against the central meridian of the projection, and carefully graduated in divisions, each representing a degree or a part of a degree, if the projection be on a sufficiently large scale. Having got a scale of degrees numbered along KG from 30 to 75 (supposing that the map of Europe is the map on which we are at work), which will indicate the latitude of any place to be inserted in the map, by moving it east or west from the central meridian as required, the longitude may be fixed by bringing the edge a K of the cardboard to the required longitude, as shown in the graduated line at the bottom of the map, in which is marked the longitude east and west from Greenwich, and the position of the place determined by making a mark on the paper at its proper latitude, as shown on the gra duated line, G K. In using this method, however, care must be taken to make allowance for the thickness of the point of the pencil or steel-point with which the position of the place is marked on the projection.

Fig. 18.

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These methods may be recommended as obviating the neces sity of subdividing the whole projection into spaces of a degree each way, as shown in the centre of the lower part of Fig. 17. The subdivisions of any strips of paper prepared as we have directed for fixing the position of places on a projection accord ing to their latitude and longitude, must depend on the size of the projection, and the length of the line assumed to represent five degrees, two degrees, one degree, or even less, which is taken

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