vain affectations,

vain altercations

and vain imaginations.

The theological writers about the time of the reformation are, according to Bacon, peculiarly subject to the first of these three distempers of learning. Martin Luther, finding the age in which he lived, opposed to him, was obliged to call antiquity to his aid. This brought on a diligent and careful study of the languages in which the ancient authors wrote, and thus men began to study words more than matter. But delicate learning, says Bacon exists more or less in all times.

The writers, about the age of the scholastic philosophy, were ignorant of the true method of philosophising The schoolmen took a certain isolated axiom, and standing therein strictly, procured arguments to support themselves. This brought on vain altercations and disputes, and gave rise to contentious learing.

The age in which astrology, alchemy, magic, &c., flourished, is marked as the time in which fantastical learning was prevalent. The writers who flourished about this time, are peculiarly subject to this distemper of learning which is the foulest of all. It is untruth, and destroys the essential form of all knowledge.

Answer 11th." Philosophia prima" or universal philosophy, according to Bacon, is that science which is the receptacle of all such axioms as do not fall within the province of any one of the sciences, but are common to all. These axioms are, as he says, "the same footsteps of nature treading, or printing upon several subjects."

Answer 12th.-Bacon divides natural philosophy into two parts, viz. speculative and operative; natural science and natural prudence. The former treats of the inquisition of causes: the latter of the production of effects He sub-divides natural science or speculative philosophy, into two parts, viz., physic and metaphysic. By the former he means that science which treats of the material and efficient causes of things: by the latter, that which inquires into their formal and final causes.

CALLEEPROSUNO BISWAS,

History.

ELPHINSTONE.

1st Class, Hindu College.

2. The real information contained in the Ramayan is, that there was a King Rama of Ojudhya (Oude) who led an expedition through Deckan to Ceylon. The fabulous circumstance of his being assisted by the Honumans, may be explained by supposing that the name was applied to some barbarians in the Deckan, for it is certain that civilization was introduced there later than when it was introduced in Hindustan Proper.

The historical information that can be gleaned from the Maha Bharat is, that there was a war waged by the sons of Pandu for the inheritance of Hustinapur, whose site has been supposed to be somewhere near Delhi. They were assisted on both sides by the potentates of several independent states into which Hindustan appears to be have been divided.

The probable date of the war celebrated in the Maha Bharat is about three or four centuries before the birth of Christ. Mr. Elphinstone, however, says, in his chapter on Chronology, that if we make Chandra Gupta

cotemporary with Seleucus, and calculate the dynasties which preceded him to Sahadeva, who is mentioned as king of Magada at the time of the war, the time will be about 1400 years before Christ, which, he adds, may be borne out by the circumstance that Hindus make Vysa, the compiler of the Vedas, as the author of the Maha Bharat.

Among other information, conveyed by the Poem, it appears that the country about the Ganges was divided into six independent states, viz. Bengal, Magada, Delhi, Ajmere, Canouge, and Guzerat.

In the Poem also the Yavanas assist the Hindus. They appear to be Greeks.

3. The principal grounds for identifying Chandra Gupta with Sandrocottus are the similiarity of the names; that the name Sandramas, which is sometimes given by the Greek Historians to Sandrocottus is almost the same with that of Chandramas, by which the Hindus sometimes call Chandra Gupta; that the narrative of the Hindus, regarding Chandra Gupta, agrees with that of the Greeks regarding Sandrocottus, the principal event being in both the usurpation of the throne of Magada by one not of the reigning family, and that the Hindu name of the Capital of Chandra Gupta, Putaliputhra is almost with that Palibothra, which is the name of the Capital of Sandrocottus according to Megasthenes, who travelled to the place as an ambassador.

The deciphering of the Pali inscriptions by Mr. PALMER has tended to shew that Asoca, who was the third in descent from Chandra Gupta, was cotemporary with Antiochus of the line of Selucidæ. This would make Chandra Gupta as cotemporary with Seleucus, and therefore the same as Sandracottus, who was the king of Magada in his time.

4. The second great conqueror of India after Sultan Mahomed was Shaabudin Ghori, commonly known by the name of Mahomed Ghori. He first led an expedition into India, in the year 1197, A. D., and suffered a defeat from Pritivi Raj, King of Delhi and Ajmere, who surrounded him with superior numbers and cut off his 10,000 men. This was near Tirouri. Two years after he retrieved his honour by gaining a signal victory over his old antagonist, who was killed in battle. He conquered Delhi and Ajmere. The next year he defeated the King of Canouge near Etwa on the Juman, and added Canouge to his conquests. His generals conquered the other places which he retained till his death, which happened in 1209 A. D., by the hand of Gakkars, who murdered him as he lay encamped on the Indus, a part of Sind. Bundlecund, and the forts Calinger, Gwalior and others were conquered by Kuthebudin, and Bengal by Bukhtyiar Khillijie, who was sent there by Kuttub, and taking Lucknowti to the Capital established the Mahomedan dominion. Besides these conquests he held Moultan, Punjab and Lahore, which he conquered from the last member of the Ghaznivite Kings, who fled thither.

5. The most tolerant Mahomedan Sovereign of India was Jalla udin Akbar. He abolished the jezia or capitation tax, and as a Deist relaxed much of the superstitious discipline of Mahomedans. He indiscriminately employed both Hindus and Musulmans, and some of the greatest men of his time were from the former class, such as Rajas Todar Mal, Mansing, Birbul, and others He prohibited the Sutti and the sale of captives.

6. The tobacco or tambaco is of foreign growth, as its American name shews. It is in extensive use in this country. Its use was prohibited by Aurunzebe.

PELOPONESIAN WAR.

1. The contest was between Athens and Sparta. The principal states which assisted Sparta were Corinth, Megara, Thebes, Ambracia, Tegea, Mantinea, Elis, and latterly Syracuse and Persia-the last with her gold. The principal states which assisted Athens were Corcyra, Platea, Acharnania, the Argives of Amphilochia, and latterly by the Argives. They had also their allies on the Egean, which comprehended most of the Islands between Greece and the Coast of Asia Minor, with Rhodes, Crete, and their Colonies on the coast of Macedon, Thrace and on the Helespont. The strength of Sparta consisted in her army and that of Athens in her navy. The Athenians had their own heavy armed infantry and were assisted by contributions from the other states, and cavalry from Thrace. The Spartans were more usefully assisted by ships from Corinth, Tegea, Syracuse and other states.

2. The principal leaders on the side of Sparta were Archidemus, Agis, Brasidas, Astyochus, Callicratidas and Lysander. Archidemus and Agis were Kings and commanded the army. Brasidas distinguished himself by conquering the colonies and subject states of Athens in Chalcedon, and fell in the battle of Amphipolis. Astyochus commanded the navy which the Spartans sent to assist the allies of Athens in their revolt. Callicratidas commanded in the battle of Arginæs and fell there. Lysander gained the aid of Persia, crushed the Athenian navy at Egaspotumi, and finished the war by taking Athens and demolishing its walls, and depriving it of its constitution.

The principal commanders on the Athenian side were Phormio, Paches Nicias, Demosthenes, Protomachus, Conon and Alcibiades. Phormio twice defeated the navy of Corinth and Sparta on the west coast, and established the interest of Athens in the islands adjoining. Paches quelled the revolt of Mytelyne. Nicias captured Cythera and commanded the unfortunate expedition to Syracuse, where he was taken captive and executed. Demosthenes defeated the Ambricians and Spartans at Olpae and Idomene, and established the Athenian interest in Acharnania. His other great achievements were the fortification and defence of Pylus and the capture of the Spartans in the Island of Spacteria. He was executed in Syracuse with Nicias with whom he was joined in command. Conon commanding in the Egean was confined by Callicratidas in Miletus. This brought on the battle of Arginusæ, when Protomachus lead the first division of the right, his colleagues the rest of the ten generals commanding the other division. The Spartans were defeated, and Callicratidas died in battle. Alcibiades commanded in the Syracusan expedition. The intrigues of his enemies procured a decree for his recall to stand a trial for having polluted the Elusinian mysteries. He however fled to Sparta. When however the reverses of Athens led her citizens to court the aid of Persia, Alcibiades, who had gained a great ascendency over the Persian Governor, Tissaphernes, was once more recalled to the navy and from thence after the victories on the Hellespont to the city. He was however banished again, for he incurred the displeasure of the people of Athens for the ill success of his Lieutenant Antiochus, who was defeated at Notium by Lysander. He retired to his estate on the Hellespont, and finally died fighting against the emissaries of the Persian Governor, who were sent to set fire to his house, when he last took refuge with the Governor.

Besides, Cleon and Pericles also commanded the army and the navy. They were however, together with Alcibiades and Nicias, more engaged in the civil affairs.

Pericles has been pronounced the greatest statesman of ancient times. He wielded the assembly and the power of Athens almost absolutely, and applied it to raise his country to a high pitch of political glory and refinement in literature and the liberal arts. He led the Athenians to declare war against Sparta.

Cleon though more known as a demagouge, possessed great powers in the assembly. He ostensibly commanded in the capture of the Spartans at Sphacteria, and fought the battle of Amphipolis in which he fell.

3. The principal events of the Peloponesian war were the siege of Platea, which the Spartans and Thebans blockaded, captured, raising the walls to the ground and massacring the inhabitants: the siege of Potidea by the Athenians who captured it: that of Mytelyne by Paches who took it, demolished its constitution and established an Athenian colony on its lands, which the owners were allowed to cultivate as tenants: the capture of Cythera: the battle of Amphipolis: the fortification of Pylus : the capture of the Spartans at Sphacteria: the expedition to Syracuse and its defeat: the naval engagements at Notium, Arginsæ and Egospotami, the events of which I have described above. Besides the Syracusan expedition was distinguished by the defeat of the Syracusans near their city the fortification of Epipole, of Plemmyrium by the Athenians, their dislodgement by Gylippus: the great battle in harbour; the retreat of the Athenians, their surrender and the execution of their generals, Nicias and Demosthenes.

4. The principal historians of the Peloponesian war were Thucydides and Xenophon. Thucydides took part in it and held a command of the navy. He was banished however from Athens for not succouring Amphipolis. He retired to his estate in Thrace. Xenophon was a distinguished commander, and it was under him that 10,000 Greeks, who were sent to assist Cyrus, retreated to their country.

ARNOLD.

1. The principal victories of Hannibal in Italy are: that of Ticinus; of Trebia over Sempronius and Scipio; and that of Thrasemynus over Flaminius, whom he drew into an ambuscade near the lake, and falling upon the Romans while they could not see for a mist, massacred them and totally crushed the army. Flaminius was killed in battle. It was after two years of ravaging the southern Italy, that the Roman Consuls, Varro and Emilius, encountered him between Cannæ and Salapia on the banks of the Aufidius. With singular judgment and military skill he allowed the Romans to drive back his centre, thus presenting their flanks to the African infantry and his invincible Numidian cavalry, who attacked them with vigour. The whole army was routed and scarce 3,000 men could fly with their lives. Emilius was killed, and Varro fled from the field.

His brother, Hasdrubal, fought with Publius Scipio, afterwards Africanus, the battle of Baecula in the valley of the Baetes. He was defeated, but retreated with his elephants and treasure to raise soldiers for the purpose of leading an army to Italy. He succeeded, but was defeated by the Romans on the banks of the Metaurus and killed.

2. Three of the Scipio family were engaged in the second Punic War. These were Publius Scipio, Čneius Scipio his brother, and Publius Scipio, surnamed Africanus. The first was consul in the year 435 A. U. C., and was sent to intercept Hannibal. Failing in the attempt (for Hannibal eluded him) he sent his brother Cneius with the army to Spain. In the succeeding year he was sent with proconsular power to carry the war in Spain. He with his brother succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from the north of the Iberus (Ebro,) but was defeated by the Carthaginian Generals Hasdrubal, Gisco and others, and both the brothers killed in battle in 433 A. U. C. The last was sent to Spain the next year. The year following he carried by assault New Carthage, the Capital of the Carthaginian dominions in Spain. He defeated the Carthaginian General Hasdrubal, and also the brothers of Hannibal and Hasdrubal Gisco, and established the dominion of Rome there as much by his military success as by his address and engaging behaviour.

He returned in 448 A. U. C., and was elected Consul. After various successes in Sicily he carried the war to Africa. He crushed one Carthaginian army by burning their camps in the night and massacring them amidst the confusion. He defeated two others under Hasdrubal Gisco, and at last encountered Hannibal, who was recalled from Italy, on the plains of Zama. A sharp engagement was fought between the veterans of Hannibal and the Romans. The Carthaginian was, however, defeated. The result of the victory was that Carthage accepted the terms of the Romans, and concluded a peace. This was in the year 452, after the building of the city of Rome.

3. The principal privileges conferred by the Romans on their colonies and allies were right of governing themselves by their own magistrates and laws. They recognised also their private rights, such as those of marriage and inheritance, and allowed them the exercise of their religion. Political power was, however, denied to them, and their intercourse with each other sometimes restricted.

International war stopped in Italy by remaining subject to Rome, and a market was opened for the industry of the small states in the opulent city of Rome.

Certain hopes were also held to them of rising one day in political importance by obtaining the franchise of Rome

Among the colonies those of the Latin name, which were established by emigrants from Rome, were distinguished by certain privileges. These were the rights of Connubium and Commercium, or the rights of possessing lands in Rome by inheritance or purchase; of returning to Rome if he left a son at his new residence, and certain other privileges, which secured them a share of independance greater than that of the allies.

The principal cities which revolted to Hannibal were Capua, Tarentum together with most of Samnia, Campania, Lucania, and Bruttium. Beneventum and Neapolis remained faithful to Rome, together with the other Latin Colonies. The Latin States remained faithful, so did the Etrurians, Umbrians, the Pelignians, the Marucians and the country of the Caudinian Samnites.

4. It was in the siege of Syracuse that engineering was greatly used by Archimedes, who furnished his country with a variety of contrivances. Marcellus, who repeatedly assaulted the city both by sea and land, was baffled by projectiles, which were thrown at the Romans before they could come within the reach of their missiles. When he would attempt