negatively, by restraining our vices. The one encourages intercourse, the other creates distinctions. The first is a patron; the last a punisher. Society, in every state, is a blessing; but government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state, an intolerable one.Paine.

Let us suppose a small number of persons settled in some sequestered part of the earth, unconnected with the rest; they will then represent the first peopling of any country, or of the world. In this state of natural liberty, society will be their first thought. A thousand motives will excite them thereto; the strength of one man is so unequal to his wants, and his mind so unfitted for perpetual solitude, that he is soon obliged to seek assistance and relief of another, who in his turn requires the same. Four or five united, would be able to raise a tolerable dwelling in the midst of a wilderness: but one man might labour out the common period of his life without accomplishing any thing; when he felled his timber he could not remove it, nor erect it after it was removed; hunger in the mean time would urge him from his work, and every different want call him a different way. Disease, nay, even misfortune, would be death; for though neither might be mortal, yet either would disable him from living, and reduce him to a state in which he might be rather said to perish than to die. Thus, necessity, like a gravitation power, would soon form our newly arrived emigrants into society, the reciprocal blessings of which would supersede and render the obligations of Law and Government unnecessary, while they remained perfectly just to each other.—

Idem.

Political arrangement is more or less perfect, in proportion as it enables us to exert our natural liberty to the greatest advantage; if it is directed to any other purpose, it is made the instrument of gratifying the passions of a few; if it imposes greater restraint than its object prescribes, it degenerates into tyranny and oppression.-Robert Hall.

The interest of the community is merely the interest of the individuals who compose it. No law, nor act, nor government, can be for the advantage of the community, which has not a tendency to augment the happiness of the individual members of the community, in a greater degree than to diminish it.-Anon.

The rights of men, in a state of society, extend to the doing every thing which is not injurious to another.Anon.

Political society is founded in the principles of morality and justice. It is impossible for intellectual beings to be brought into coalition and intercourse without a certain mode of conduct, adapted to their nature and connection, immediately becoming a duty on the parties concerned. Men would never have associated, if they had not imagined that in consequence of that association they would mutually conduce to the advantage and happiness of each other. This is the real purpose, the genuine basis, of their intercourse; and as far as this purpose is answered, so far does society answer the end of its institution.-Godwin.

When, by virtue of the first laws, part of the society accumulated wealth and grew powerful, they enacted others more severe, and would protect their property at the expense of humanity. This was abusing their power, and commencing a tyranny. If a savage, before he entered into society, had been told, "Your neighbour by this means may become owner of a hundred deer; but if your brother, or your son, or yourself, having no deer of your own, and being hungry, should kill one, an infamous death must be the consequence," he would probably have preferred his liberty, and his common right of killing any deer, to all the advantages of society that might be proposed to him.— Franklin.

In a state of nature, it is an invariable law, that a man's acquisitions are in proportion to his labours. In a state of artificial society, it is a law as constant and invariable, that those who labour most, enjoy the fewest things; and that those who labour not at all, have the greatest number of enjoyments. A constitution of things this, strange and ridiculous beyond expression. We scarcely believe a thing when we are told it, which we actually see before our eyes every day without being the least surprised.Burke.

The science of society consists of four divisions-1st. the production of all things necessary for the happiness of man; 2nd. the distribution of these things; 3rd. the formation of the character of every individual; and 4th. the government, foreign and domestic. To understand the science, these parts must be known separately and unitedly.

1. Of Production. In all societies of men, a certain portion of their powers must be applied to create what they consume and use; such as food, clothes, dwellings, furniture, &c. This is called production; and whenever the power of production shall be rightly directed, to create the best things in the best manner, for the general benefit, then it may be said that this power is applied scientifically.

2. Of Distribution. By distribution is meant the arrangements applied to convey to, and divide among, all the members of society, the various articles of wealth produced for the use and enjoyment of the population. When these arrangements shall be effected in such a manner as to secure the least loss of labour to the whole community, this department may be said to be scientifically performed. At present, the wealth produced by society is distributed in the worst possible manner. Probably, the waste of capital and labour in this department, is forty to one more than is necessary.

3. Of the formation of character. By this is meant the arrangement of circumstances of human formation, which, acting upon each individual, form the character of the population, from infancy to maturity. When these arrangements are all devised to produce proper impressions and superior dispositions, habits, manners, knowledge, and conduct, in every individual, so as to form them into rational beings—that is, that they shall always act and think rationally-then it may be said, that the principles of the formation of character have been scientifically applied to practice. At present, the arrangements for forming the character of the population of all countries, are so ill-contrived, so inconsistent, and so injurious to all, that they may be truly said to be arrangements to prevent men becoming rational creatures-to keep them in a state of poverty and insanity-and to guard effectually against their acquiring any knowledge of truth, upon subjects the most important to their well-being and happiness.

4. Of Government. By government is meant, the laws and regulations by which production, distribution, and the formation of character, are arranged and directed. When all the details in the departments of production, distribution, and the formation of character, separately and unitedly, shall be arranged and directed in the best manner, to secure, permanently, to each individual, a full supply of

the best of every thing for human nature-to produce, physically, mentally, and morally, the best character in each individual—and unite all in a broad and real affection and charity, so that " each shall love his neighbour as himself," and "there shall be peace on earth, and good-will among men," then it may be said that government has been scientifically arranged, for the benefit of mankind.— Owen.

By tracing society to its origin, and ascertaining the purposes for which it was designed, we demolish sophistry, and lay bare the imposition of the defenders of privileged classes and exclusive rights. Society is based upon a principle of perfect equality, which knows no such distinctions as rich and poor, noble and ignoble, patrician and plebeian, aristocrat and democrat, rulers and ruled. These are all distinctions produced by society itself, and are separable from the original constitution of the social fabric. Their justice and utility are legitimate subjects for investigation and determination.-Carpenter.

The interest of the whole society is binding upon every part of it. No rule, short of this, will provide for the stability of civil government, or for the peace and safety of social life. Wherefore, as individual members of the state are not permitted to pursue their private emolument to the prejudice of the community, so it is equally a consequence of this rule, that no particular colony, province, town, or district, can justly concert measures for their separate interest, which shall appear at the same time to diminish the sum of public prosperity.... Those counsels can never be reconciled with the obligations resulting from civil union, which cause the whole happiness of the society to be impaired for the convenience of a part.-Paley.

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8

CHAPTER II

THE BASIS AND FORMS OF SOCIETY.

ence.

SECTION I.

THE SOCIAL COMPACT.

ACCORDING to Schelling, there are three eras of existThe first, which is past, was the reign of Chance or Chaos; the second, which now exists, is that of Nature; and the third, is that of an Infinite Mind, which does not yet exist, but will hereafter be developed, and will absorb all finite being. Without entering a verdict of philosophic lunacy against the greatest of living men, as some of his countrymen have called him, or stopping to attend to those fields of science in nubibus, which have been cultivated by the school of Kant, with so much diligence, fervour, and self-applause, it may merely be remarked, that this bright sally of transcendental insanity affords no bad illustration of that which takes place in human society. We are now living in "the era of Nature," in which the various forms of intellect are developed and flourish; but that General Mind is only about to disclose itself, which will embrace, cherish, and reunite all into one limitless, all-pervading spirit of intelligence.-Douglas.

If a number of men act together at all, the necessity of being determined by the sense of the majority, in the last resort, is so obvious, that it is always implied. An exact concurrence of many particular wills is impossible; and therefore, when each taken separately has precisely the same influence, there can be no hardship in suffering the result to remain at issue, till it is determined by the coincidence of the greater number. The idea of natural liberty, at least, is so little violated by this method of proceeding, that it is no more than what takes place every day in the smallest society, where the necessity of being determined by the voice of the majority is so plain, that it is scarcely ever reflected upon.-Robert Hall.

When any number of men are formed into a community, it is the result of necessity, that the decision of the majority should determine the whole body. To say that at any