The first three of these vilayets belong physically to the high tableland of Armenia. The last three embrace the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris below the mountain-region. The vilayets of Bitlis and Diarbekir are both included in the region known as KURDISTAN, which lies between Asia Minor and Persia, and consists principally of rugged mountain-chains, with intervening valleys. The city of Erzerum (39) stands near the source of the more northwardly of the two arms of the Euphrates, on a high plain, 6 000 feet above the sea.1 Bayazid, near the base of Mount Ararat, is close to the point where the frontiers of Turkey, Persia, and Russia converge. The town of Van (30) stands on the eastern shore of the extensive lake called by its name. Bitlis (25), the most considerable place in Kurdistan, is not far from the south-western shore of Lake Van, on a stream which joins the Tigris. Diarbekir (34), the ancient Amida, is on the Tigris, forty miles below its source. The city of Urfa or Orfa (55) the Edessa of the Crusaders, lies within the plain of Al Jezireh, below the moun tain-region. This plain coincides with the Mesopotamia2 of Greek geography and the Padan Aram, or Aram Naharaim, of early Scripture history. Mosul (61), on the right or western bank of the Tigris, is chiefly noteworthy from its proximity to the remains of Nineveh, on the opposite bank of this river, BAGHDAD 145), on the Tigris, the great city of this region-superior in size and population to any other city in the eastern division of Asiatic Turkey, Basra (40)-formerly much more important as a commercial city than at present-lies on the Shat el Arab, below the junction of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Erzingyan (30) was the former capital of Armenia. The plain of Irak Arabi, as the lower portion of the region watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris is called, is the Babylonia of ancient geography. It is now a marshy tract, even more thinly peopled than other parts of Asiatic Turkey, and the sands of the adjoining desert press closely upon the western bank of the Euphrates. But every portion of the plain exhibits evidences of its having been formerly densely populated, and of its once extensive cultivation. Among the many ancient sites which belong to the lands watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, two attract especial notice. These are Nineveh and Babylon, the former the capital of the Assyrian, and the latter of the Babylonian Empire. The remains of Nineveh are found upon the eastern bank of the Tigris, opposite the modern city of Mosul. The ruins of Babylon lie upon either bank of the Euphrates, in the neighbourhood of the small modern town of Hillah, to the south of Bagdad. The treasures of ancient art brought within recent times from the site of Nineveh have enriched our museums, The remains of Babylon have not yet been fully explored. 1. Kars, note for its gallant defence in 1855 and 1877, lies to the north-east of Erzerum. Along with Ardahanand Bation, it was ceded to Russia in 1878. 2. That is, in the middle of the rivers "-the Euphrates and Tigris. Aram-Naharaim (Syria between-the-Rivers) has the same meaning in Hebrew. 3. The fine cotton cloth called muslin was origh ally minufactured at Mosal, hence the name. 4. Founded, 763. Taken by Tamerlane, 1401 CYPRUS. Cyprus, the third largest island in the Mediterranean, lies in that portion of it known as the Levant. It is about 40 miles distant from the coast of Asia Minor, 60 miles from Latakia on the Syrian coast, and 240 miles from Port Said, at the entrance of the Suez Canal. The main portion of the island is 105 miles in length (i.e. from Cape Arnauti on the west to Cape Greco on the east), and 60 miles in greatest breadth (from Cape Kormakiti on the north to Cape Gatta on the south). On the northeast, a narrow peninsula runs out for 40 miles. Its extreme point, Cape Andrea, is 72 miles from Cape Khanzir, at the entrance to the Gulf of Alexandretta on the Syrian coast. The total area is 3,584 square miles, or rather less than half the size of Wales. Cyprus consists, physically, of three distinct regions-a narrow mountain belt along the northern coast, a much more extensive and loftier mountain region in the south, and between them a broad plain, called the Mesorea. The northern range culminates in the peak of Pentedaktylos; the southern mass of mountains attains in Mount Troodos, the ancient Mount Olympus, an elevation of 6,600 feet. The eastern part of the Mesorea is watered by the Pedias, the western portion by the Potamos, but there are no navigable rivers. There are several bays and harbours, but not a single harbour capable of sheltering a fleet. Except in certain places, the climate is salubrious, and the Mesorean plain is so fertile that it might be readily converted into one huge corn-field, and might again become, as of old, the "garden and granary of the East." Agriculture is, however, carried on in the most primitive manner, and little more than onetenth of the island is actually under cultivation. The productions include corn, cotton, wine, fruits, carobs, and olives, and these with wool and hides are exported, but the total trade only amounts to about two-thirds of a million a year, and the imports from, and exports to, the United Kingdom are each about £80,000 in value, although the population, consisting mainly of Greeks, is not much under 238,000. The capital is the inland town of NIKOSIA or Lefkosia (15), in the centre of the island; the other principal towns are Larnaka (10), Limasol (8), and Famagusta (4), on the coast. Cyprus still nominally forms part of the Turkish Empire, but it was placed under the control of England in 1878. The Government is administered by a High Commissioner, aided by a Legislature of 18 members, 12 of whom are elected-3 by Mohammedan, and 9 by non-Mohammedan, voters. Native judges sit in all the courts of law, except in the Supreme Court for the whole island, which consists of two English judges. 1. On June 4th, 1878, a "Convention" was secretly | Russia sho'd continue to hold Batum, Ardahan, signed between the English Government and the and Kars. The promised reforms are yet to come Sulan-Eng and undertaking to protect the Sul- the British occupation and administration of tan's Astatic Empire by force of arms' if need Cyprus bid fair to revive the ancient glory and pro be; the Sultan promising to introduce all necesdictiveness of the island, with under Venetian sary reforms in the government of his Asiatic via sway had a mailen inhoitants-more than six times yers, and to assign the island of Cyprus to be oc- its population when transferred to us. cupied and administered by Eng and as long as ARABIA. ARABIA is a large country in the south-west of Asia, and forms the most westerly of the three great peninsulas of Southern Asia. Jezereet el Arab, “the Peninsula of the Arabs" as it is called by the natives, is the largest peninsula in the world. It is bounded on the north by Syria and Mesopotamia; on the west, by the Red Sea; on the south, by the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea; and on the east, by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, EXTENT: Its area is estimated at 1 million square miles, 01 about 20 times greater than that of England and Wales. A straight line from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to Ras el Had measures about 1,650 miles. The distance from Mocha on the Red Sea to Muscat on the Gulf of Oman is about 1,250 miles. In the north, the peninsula narrows to about 800 miles between Makna, on the Gulf of Akaba, and Koweit (Korein), near the head of the Persian Gulf. COASTS: The Arabian peninsula is washed on three sides-on the east, the south, and the west-by the sea. The dreary and desolate coasts, which measure 4,000 miles in length, are regular and almost unbroken, much more so than those of the other great peninsulas of Southern Asia. The Red Sea, which forms the western limit of Arabia, divides, at its northern extremity, into two gulfs. The more westerly of these is called the Gulf of Suez (connected by the Sues Canal with the Mediterranean), the more eastwardly is the Gulf of Akaba. The tract enclosed between them is the Peninsula of Sinai. The shores of the Red Sea are lined by coral reefs, which make the navigation dangerous; but its mid-channel is open and deep. The Strait of Bab el Mandeb' connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf has on its western side an extensive submarine bank, upon which pearl-fishing is pursued. The Strait of Ormuz connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman, which opens into the Indian Ocean. Of the few islands of Arabia, the only noteworthy ones are the Farsan and Kamaran Islands in the Red Sea, off the coast of Yemen; Perim, in the Strait of Bab el Mandeb; the Kuria Muria Islands, off the south coast; and the Bahrein Islands, the centre of a flourishing pearl-fishery, in the Persian Gulf, off the coast of El Hassa-all of which islands, except Farsan, either belong to, or are under the protection of, Great Britain. NATURAL FEATURES: Arabia has mountain-chains lying in a parallel direction to its seaward borders-west, south, and east --and there are also some high ranges upon the interior plateau. Of the coast-mountains, the most important are those which nearly fill the Peninsula of Sinai. The highest peak of the Sinai Mountains reaches 9,300 feet above the sea. A minor chain also skirts the south coast, from Aden on the west to the highlands of Oman in the south-east of the peninsula. Jebel Akhdar, in Oman, attains an elevation of 9,900 feet above the sea. L..., the "Gate of Tears," from the numerous shipwrecks that have occurred there. The interior plateau includes a series of high and desert plains, destitute of perennial streams, but generally adapted for pasturage. This central tableland is known as the Nejd,' and culminates in the Jebel Toweyk range, which has an average height of 3,000 feet above the sea. The highlands of the Nejd proper are bounded on the north by a narrow neck of the Nefud or Sandy Desert, beyond which lies the minor plateau of Jebel Shammar, which is crossed by two ranges, the Jebel Aja and the Jebel Selman. The highest point in the former is supposed to be about 6,000 feet above the sea. A much greater expanse of desert lies between Jebel Shammar and the fertile and well-peopled oasis of Jof, to the north-west. The Arabian Desert presents, for the most part, a gravelly or sandy surface, but is in some places covered with high and barren masses of hill, forming a rocky or stony wilderness. This is the case in the north-western portion of the country-including the Sinai Peninsula and the adjacent tract towards the border of Syria-which forms the Arabia Petræa3 (i.e., the Rocky Arabia) of ancient geography. But the Nefud or Sandy Desert, between Jof and the Nejd, is not, as is generally supposed, destitute of vegetation; on the contrary, "not only are the hollows well clothed with grass, but also every part of the plain." A low and narrow plain, called the Tehama, stretches round the coast of the Arabian peninsula, between the sea and the adjacent mountain-region. This plain is arid, destitute of water, and intensely hot. Arabia has neither rivers nor lakes. There are numerous water-courses or wadys, that is, beds of streams, which become rapid torrents during the season of rain, but are dry for the greater part of the year. CLIMATE: The climate of Arabia is hot and dry, excepting, perhaps, in the higher parts of the mountain-regions, towards the coast. The narrow belt of the Tehama is intensely hot and arid ; even more so on the side of the Persian Gulf than on the other coasts of the peninsula. Rain very seldom falls in this region, some parts of which are absolutely rainless, and more arid and barren than the Sahara itself. Contrary to the generally received opinion that the Nefud or Sandy Desert of the interior was periodically swept by the pestilential simoom, Mr. Blunt states that, while "sand-storms were common enough, but not dangerous to travellers, the simoom was not even known by name," and that his guide "denied positively that such a phenomenon had occurred within his forty years' experience." PRODUCTIONS: The only parts of Arabia that possess natural fertility are found within the mountain-region chiefly towards the south-western borders of the peninsula. Rain is here more frequent, and there are perennial springs. This was accordingly distinguished by the ancients as Arabia Felix or Arabia the Happy. 1. Sir Henry Rawlinson, during the discussion on Mr. Bant's account of his visit to Central Arabia in the winter of 1879-90, remarked that "Nejd was a name belonging to physical geography, simply meaning a highland, and in all historical geography was applied to the great plateau of Central Arabia, which was elevated and surrounded ou all sides by desert. Jefeant the lowland, from an Arabic root signifying to low, and was constantly contrasted with the Nejd or the highland."-Proceedings of the 3. Greek, petra, a rock. The ancients divi ed Arabia into Arabia Petra, or the Rocky, in the north-west; Arabia Featx, or the Happy, in the south-west; and Arabia Deserta, or the Desert, in the centre. The vine, fig, peach, almond, and many other fruits flourish in this region, and the coffee-plant is abundantly cultivated. The date-palm also flourishes there, and is found, besides, in every oasis of the Arabian Desert.* There are few wild animals, but the nomads have large flocks of sheep and goats; the Arab horse is incomparable for speed, and the camel for endurance. There are no minerals except lead and rock-salt. Fine pearls are found off the coast in the Persian Gulf. INHABITANTS: Arabia is supposed to have about one million inhabitants, but nothing certain is known on this head. There is a characteristic difference between the Arabs of the desert, who dwell in tents and wander from one place to another, and the dwellers in towns, who have fixed places of abode. The Arabs of the desert are called Bedouins, and their way of life naturally leads to numerous points of difference between them and the dwellers in fixed habitations. The wealth of the Bedouins consists in their flocks and herds-sheep, goats, camels, and horses. They look with contempt on the dwellers in towns, and the sense of freedom, which accompanies existence in the wilderness, compensates for the many deprivations which such a mode of life involves. Even in the desert, however, there are recognised limits to the different tribes beyond which they never pass. By far the greater majority of the Arabs profess Mohammedanism; and the region of El Hejaz, bordering on the Red Sea, is indeed the Holy Land of the Mohammedans, as it contains MECCA, the birthplace, and MEDINA, the burialplace, of Mohammed. The people of the Nejd belong to the Wahabee sect, founded about 1750 by Abd el Wahab, a Mohammedan reformer, who sought to restore the religion to its original purity by following the strict letter of the Koran. INDUSTRIES: But a very small portion of the country is suit able for agricultural purposes, and manufactures scarcely exist in this "anti-industrial centre of the world." The Arab, however, is a born trader, and the pilgrims to Mecca and Medina combine trade with religion. Dates and coffee, the staple food and drink of the Arabs, are largely grown, but not one-tenth of the peninsula is arable. The manufactures are limited to the weaving of coarse cloth from camel's hair, and a little metal-work. The foreign trade, which consists in the import of cotton, sugar, arms, and metal-wares, and the export of coffee, dates, horses, camels, and sheep, with hair and wool, is inconsiderable for so large a country. But the internal trade, or rather barter, is very large. The Arab, as we have said, is a born trader. The passion for trading is in fact so strong, that a true Arab will scarcely ever return from a journey, no matter how short, without having effected something in the way of business, and apparently he would rather trade even at a loss than not trade at all. The internal trade is wholly carried on by caravans, that is, companies of persons, who associate together for mutual protection in crossing the wilder. ness, including merchants, guides, soldiers, pilgrims, and various followers, with their camels and horses. 1. The best coffee in the world is grown in Yemen, and was formerly exported from Mocha, and hence called Mocha coffee. Most of it is now shipped from Hodeida, the port of Sana, and from Aden. 2. The date is the staple food of the Arab Honour the date-tree," says Mohamed, "for it is your mother," |