from the beet have so developed its cultivation, that beet-sugar enters very largely into commerce, and especially as the industry is encouraged in several countries by bounties.

The Sorghum, a variety of millet largely grown in China and the Southern States of America, also yields sugar. In India, enormous quantities of sugar, for native use, are made from the date palm, by boiling the juice, which flows from incisions made in the flower heads.

The Sugar-maple, a native of Canada and the adjoining parts of the United States, yields large quantities of coarse uncrystallizable sugar.

...The sugar industry and commerce are of the first importance, and the annual production and consumption are enormous, sugar being a necessary article of diet, even to the poorest, in almost all countries. The sugars entering into British commerce are classified as (1) Cane sugar, (2) Beet sugar, (3) Date sugar, (4) Glucose or Grape sugar, (5) Candy or Californian honey extracts, (6) Saccharine, an artificial sugar with extraordinary sweetening powers, recently discovered.

5. Plants yielding spices and condiments, such as the nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper, and pimento, are all products of the Torrid Zone.

Nutmeg and mace are products of the fruit of the nutmeg tree-nutmeg being the kernel, and mace the membraneous covering of the kernel. Nutmeg trees, chiefly cultivated in the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, bear all the year round, and continue prolific for 70 or 80 years.

Cloves, the most stimulating of the condiments used in cookery, are the dried flower-buds of an evergreen tree, a native of the Moluccas, to which the Dutch vainly endeavoured to limit the cultivation of the clove and the nutmeg and so monopolize the trade in these spices, which are now grown all over tropical America, as well as in tropical Africa and Asia.

Cinnamon-the true cinnamon--is the inner bark of the smaller twigs of an evergreen aromatic tree, indigenous to and still chiefly cultivated in Ceylon. The cinnamon of the ancients was what is known in modern commerce as the cassia lignea, most of which is now obtained from China, but largely grown also in the West and East Indies.

The Ginger of commerce is the dried root or underground stem of a reed-like plant, a native of the West and East Indies. Jamaica ginger, the best preserved ginger, a well-known sweetmeat, is prepared by boiling the young stems

in

syrup.

Pepper is the product of a perennial climbing vine, of which numerous species are found in every quarter of the globe, except Europe. Peppercorns are the whole berries, and the only difference between black and white pepper is that, in preparing white pepper, the black outer coat of the berries is removed by soaking them in water. The Pepper-vine is cultivated all over the mainland and islands of South-Eastern Asia-nine-tenths of the immense quantities annually imported into the United Kingdom comes from Singapore, where the pepper produced in the Straits Settlements, Sumatra, Borneo, Siam, &c., is collected.

Pimento, the all-spice of commerce, is the sun-dried, unripe berries of a tree cultivated chiefly in Jamaica.

Cardamoms, the most valuable of all Indian condiments, used in India chiefly for culinary, and in Europe for medicinal, purposes, are largely grown on the Cardamum Mountains, in Southern India, and elsewhere.

Vanilla, an aromatic much used in confectionery, is the pod or fruit of an ivy. like trailing air-plant, which attaches itself to trees, not as a source of food, like the mistletoe and other parasites, but as a mere point of support, deriving its nourishment entirely from the atmosphere.1

Mustard, caraway, coriander, and anise, are produced in temperate as well as tropical countries. Mustard seed is largely imported from the East Indies for the oil; and white mustard seed is imported from the Continent for grinding with the black mustard seed grown in this country."

Plants yielding Beverages may be divided into two great classes; (1) those which, like the grape-vine, yield alcoholic beverages by fermentation, and (2) those which yield nutritious and stimulating beverages by infusion of their leaves or seeds with water. Wine and beer are the chief alcoholic drinks, while tea, coffee, and cocoa are by far the most widely-used non-alcoholic beverages.

Wine is principally prepared from the fermented juice of the grape, which varies in colour, form, size, and flavour, in different localities.

The actual limits of the cultivation of the vine are fixed by the conditions of soil and climate, and by the requirements of commerce. Chalky and limestone soils, and a warm, sunny climate, with a moderate rainfall, are best adapted for viticulture, but the industry, being one in which long experience, great skill, and expensive appliances are necessary, is restricted within rather narrower limits than climatic conditions impose. The vine may grow well in many localities where the grape-juice cannot be made into wine of any commercial value. In many such places, however, the grape is largely grown and consumed as a table-fruit.

The Wine Countries of Europe lie south of an irregular line between the coast of the Bay of Biscay and the northern coast of the Caspian Sea. The average annual wine production is as follows:-France, 940,000,000 gals. ; Italy, 600,000,000 gals. ; Spain, 485,000,000 gals. ; Austria-Hungary, 160,000,000 gals.; Portugal, 90,000,000; Germany, 80,000,000; the Balkan Countries and Roumania, 60,000,000; Russia, 40,000,000. In Africa, the vineyards of Algeria produce over 40,000,000 gals. annually, and the vintage of the Cape Colony amounts to about 4,000,000 gals., while in Australia, viticulture is rapidly becoming an industry of the first importance-Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia now producing over 2,000,000 gals. of wine annually. In the United States, the annual production is upwards of 24,000,000 gals.

France holds the first rank as regards both the quantity and quality of its wines, of which the Clarets of the south-west, the Champagnes and Burgundy of the north-east, are the most famous. But, owing to the ravages of the phylloxera (an insect pest which in a few years destroyed three million acres of vineyards), and the large consumption of wine by the people generally, France now imports from Spain and Italy two or three times the quantity exported. A large proportion of the wines exported from France are thus not produced in the country; and, besides, not a few of the French wines are entirely arti

1. "The use of vanilla and many other natural aromatic essences has been greatly interfered with by the beautiful discoveries in the chemistry of ethers, which render it now easy to prepare artin. cially, not an imitation of flavouring substances, but

the very same essences as are yielded by the choicest fruits and flowers."

2. See further Dr. Yeats's Manuals of Commerce, vol I (George Philip and Son).

ficial products, or made from raisins, &c. The Rhine Wines, the Taunus and Moselle wines of Germany, the Tokay of Hungary, the Port of Portugal and the Sherry of Spain, the Marsala of Italy (Sicily), the Constantia of the Cape, the Tintara and other wines of Australia, are among the chief wines of commercial value.

Beer is usually made from malt (that is, from barley-grain which has been allowed to sprout and then killed) flavoured with hops, a vine extensively cultivated in England (Kent, Surrey, Hereford, and Hants), Germany, Austria, and the United States. The consumption of beer is enormous, especially among the English, German, and other Teutonic peoples.

Tea, a universally popular beverage, is made by infusing the leaves of an evergreen plant, which is extensively cultivated in China, India, and Japan. Three pounds of the leaves of the tea-plant yield one pound of the tea of commerce. Green and black tea are not produced from different species of plants, as might be supposed, but from the same plant by different preparation. "To produce green tea, the leaves, as soon as plucked, are placed in iron pans and exposed to the action of heat for a few minutes only, then they are rubbed together and a second time 'fired' for two or three hours, being constantly stirred by persons in attendance, and in the case of fine tea, fanned to preserve their green colour." Small quantities of Prussian blue are added to intensify the hue of tea intended for export-the Chinese never dye the tea which they retain for their own use. In the case of black tea, the leaves are exposed to the air for some time before they are "fired." Tea is the national beverage in China; a Chinaman abhors cold water, and tea, fresh and strong, is drunk at every meal. The home consumption is therefore enormous, and immensely in excess of the quantities exported by sea to England, America, &c., or overland to Russia, &c. Neither the Chinese nor Japanese use milk or sugar with tea. Of European peoples, the English and Russians are the greatest consumers of The annual consumption per head of the population is estimated to be 5 lbs. in the United Kingdom, 1 lb. in the United States, lb. in Russia, lb. in France and Germany. The annual production is estimated to be:-India (with Ceylon), 289,468,000 lbs. ; China, 217,467,000 lbs.; Japan, 61,532,000 lbs. ; other countries, 2,250,000 lbs.

tea

use

Maté or Paraguay Tea, a refreshing and restorative beverage in universal South America, is prepared for the market by drying and roasting the leaves of an evergreen shrub, a species of holly. A stimulating beverage, also much used in Bolivia and Peru, is made by infusing the leaves of the coca plant. The Coffee of commerce is the kernel of the fruit-a globular two-seeded berry-of an evergreen plant, a native of Abyssinia, where it still grows wild. The coffee plant is widely cultivated in all warm countries, but nearly one-half of the supply required for commerce is produced in Brazil. The best coffee comes from Mocha, in Yemen, the southernmost province of Arabia. Raw coffee is roasted to bring out its aroma and improve its stimulating power and flavour. Coffee was first sold in London in 1652, and in a few years the coffee-house was a recognised institution-the "Londoner's Home." Lloyd's, the chief marine insurance association in the world, was originally a coffee-house at which marine insurers and underwriters met. The average annual production is estimated at-Brazil, 250,000 tons; Java, 140,000 tons; West Indies and Central America, 90,000 tons; India, 20,000 tons; other countries, 60,000 tons. Cocoa and Chocolate are highly nutritious beverages, and not mere stimulating infusions like rea and coffee. Cocoa is prepared by roasting and grinding up

the entire nut or pod-like fruit of the cacao tree, husk and kernel; chocolate, by removing the husk and then roasting the beans and grinding them to a powder, which, mixed with sugar and flavoured with vanilla, and made into a paste, forms the well-known chocolate cakes. Cocoa nibs are prepared by roasting and simply crushing the beans. Cocoa is the national beverage of Spain, chocolate is a favourite drink in France, and the use of both is happily extending in this country.'

Medicinal Plants, such as the cinchona, coca, &c., have ever been of incalculable benefit to mankind.

The Cinchona tree, a native of the Andean region of South America, yields the powerful and widely-used tonic, quinine. The cultivation of cinchonas has been successfully introduced into India, the West Indies, Japan, &c., but most of the "Peruvian bark" of commerce comes from Peru and Bolivia.

The Coca, a shrub which grows on the slopes of the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes, possesses extraordinary stimulating and recuperative powers. The coca leaves were chewed by the Indians in the most ancient times to impart energy, and to enable them to endure hunger and fatigue. Coca extract is said to quicken the action of the heart, invigorate the muscles and brain, and to excite an indescribable feeling of exhilaration in the whole system."

Of the Plants which yield Narcotics, the principal are the tobacco plant and the poppy.

The Tobacco plant is an annual, native to the New World, but now cultivated throughout the Tropical and Temperate Zones. Climatic conditions and soil are sufficiently favourable for the cultivation of tobacco in the United Kingdom, especially in Ireland, but its general culture is prohibited by excise restrictions. The annual consumption of tobacco is enormous, its use being almost universal among civilized and savage peoples alike. Leaf tobacco is principally exported from North America, roll tobacco mainly from South America and the West Indies. Cuba produces the finest tobacco in the world, and Havana the best cigars. Fine cigars are also manufactured at Manilla, in the Philippines, and a large trade is done in Turkish tobaccos and cigars.

Opium is the dried juice of the seed-pods of the poppy, and extensively used by Eastern peoples to produce intoxication. Enormous quantities are produced in India for export to China-its cultivation in India being a government monopoly and producing a revenue of ten millions sterling a year.

Other medicinal products of the vegetable kingdom are-aloes, a bitter drug obtained from Socotra, Barbados, and the Cape; liquorice, grown chiefly in Spain; ipecacuanha, an emetic medicine, exported from Brazil and India; rhubarb (as a drug), of which there are two sorts, Russian or Turkey rhubarb, and the East Indian or Chinese rhubarb, both produced in China-the former being exported overland via Kiahkta, and the latter by sea from Canton; jalap, so called from Xalapa, in Mexico; camomile, cultivated in England and on the continent; sarsaparilla, a powerful medicine, mainly from Jamaica, Brazil, and Mexico; and senna, a popular drug, a produce of tropical Asia and Africa. Numerous plants furnish valuable oils, gums, resins, balsams, and dyes. Oleaginous plants are of two kinds: (1) those which yield fixed or fat oils by pressure from the fruits or seeds, and (2) those which yield essential or volatile oils by distillation. The principal

1. The refreshing properties of tea, coffee, and cocoa are due to a stimulating substance called respectively theine, caffeine, and theobromine.

The plants are dissimilar, but the active principle in the three is identical.

Fixed Oils are:-Palm oil, the staple export of the Gold Coast and the Niger; cocoa-nut oil, largely used in making candles, and in tropical America as a substitute for butter; castor oil, produced in the East and West Indies and Africa; olive oil, a valuable product of the Mediterranean countries, and by far the most important of all vegetable oils; rape oil, which is more suitable than any other oil for lubricating machinery, &c. ; linseed oil, largely employed in the manufacture of paints and printers' ink, &c.; and croton and other oils, obtained from various oleaginous nuts and seeds, of which several hundred thousands of tons are annually crushed in British oil mills.

Essential Oils obtained by distillation include, among others, the famous attar or otto of roses, the most exquisite and expensive of all perfumes-100,000 roses must be distilled to yield three drachms of pure attar-oils of lavender, thyme, peppermint, anise, and caraway.

India-rubber or Caoutchouc is the hardened juice of a variety of tropical plants, by far the largest supplies being obtained from the selvas of the Amazon (Pará rubber) and other parts of Brazil, Central America, India (Assam rubber), and the Malay archipelago and Africa. Over 125,000,000 lbs. of rubber are produced annually-61,000,000 lbs. in Brazil and Peru, and 48,000,000 lbs. in West Africa and principally worked up (waterproof fabrics, &c.) in Great Britain and the United States.

Gutta-percha is a similar and equally useful product, and is worked up into a variety of articles, and is especially valuable as an insulator in telegraph cables.

Other vegetable products are tar, obtained by distillation of the roots of pines and other conifers; turpentine, valuable in medicine and manufactures; gum-arabic, obtained from the chief African and Arabian ports; camphor, frankincense, &c.

Dye Plants: Numerous trees and plants furnish an endless variety of dyes, essential in enriching and beautifying silk, woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures, and useful in other industries.

Logwood is the heart-wood of a tropical American tree, imported in logs (hence the name), which are cut up and ground into powder by powerful machinery. Logwood is chiefly used by dyers, hatters, and printers, to produce red, blue, purple, and different shades of these colours. Other dye-woods, such as the fustic and red Brazil wood of Central America, and the camwood of Western Africa, enter largely into the commerce of the world.

Indigo, a fine blue dye, is derived from a shrub, native to the East Indies, but also cultivated in tropical America and Africa. The chief supply comes from India, which has almost a monopoly of the trade. Madder produces a variety of colours, but the plant is not much grown since the introduction of coal-tar dyes. The Arnotto or Annotto of commerce is prepared from the crimson pulp of the pods of a small evergreen tree, and is largely used for dyeing silks in France and for colouring butter and cheese in Holland and England.

Textile Plants: The chief plants cultivated for their fibres are cotton, flax, hemp, and jute.

Cotton: The cultivation and manufacture of cotton are among the most important industries in the world.

1. Textile, woven, Lat. textilis-texo, textum, to weave.