49 7 -abc4a2b2c2. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. ”) 110 1. Expand (x + y)3. 2. Expand (a + b)ˆ. 3. Expand (a 4. Expand (x + y)' 5. Expand (a 6. Expand (+ n)". 7. Expand (a + b)°. 8. Expand (x + y) 9. Expand (· 10. Expand (a 6)7. 11. Expand (a + b)o. 12. Expand (2 + x)3. 13. Expand (a bx + c) 3. 14. Expand (a+3bc)3. 15. Expand (2ab x)+. 16. Expand (4ab5c2)2. 17. Expand (3x — 6y)3. 18. Expand (5a + 3d)3. The Answers to these will be given in our next Lesson. LESSONS IN GERMAN.-No. LXXXVII. § 158. COLLOCATION OF words. (1) In the arrangement of words in sentences, the German differs widely from the English. Many differences of collocation, accordingly, have already been noted and explained in various other parts of these lessons. But, as every word and member of a sentence in German takes its position according to a definite law of arrangement, and cannot, without great offence against euphony, be thrown out of its proper place, we | which a noun or adjective is made to play the same part in subjoin here some general instructions on this topic. (2) The essential parts of every sentence, as already remarked (§ 119.), are the Subject and the Predicate. That which is used (properly some part of the verb of existence, fein) to couple the subject and the predicate, is called the Copula. Now, arranging these three parts in their natural order, the subject will come first, the copula next, the predicate last: thus, respect to a verb that is sustained by a separable particle. This will account for the position of um Rath in the sentence: it being treated just like a separable prefix. Other phrases belonging to this class are: Sülfe leisten, to render aid. 3u Hülfe kommen, to come to the aid. Zu Mittag essen, to dine. Acht geben, to pay attention. Ums Leben bringen, to deprive of life. Troy bieten, to bid defiance. Rath geben, to give advice. (4) In the case of compound tenses, however, the auxiliary takes the place of the copula; which place is also held by the auxiliaries of mood ($ 74.): the place of the predicate being occupied by the infinitive or participle. If the verb be a compound separable ($ 90), the particle stands in the place of the predicate, while the radical forms the copula. Examples: Predicate. gelesen. read Object. feinen Gegenstand seinen Gegenstand das Geld Adverb, Predicate. vortrefflich. vortrefflich behandelt. mit Freuten ausgegeben. (12) Nouns and pronouns, with the prepositions appropriate to the verb employed in the sentence, generally come immediately before the predicate. Examples: Ich habe niemals über den Gegenstand mit ihm gesprochen. When, however, the preposition with its noun is merely used to denote the cause or purpose, &c., of what is expressed by the verb, it stands before the object. Examples: Wir tranken gestern aus Mangel an Vier Wasser. $159. INVERSION. (1) In all the cases preceding, the natural order of the leading parts has been preserved: that is, the subject first, the copula next, and the predicate last. But for the sake of giving special emphasis to particular words, this order is often inverted. Thus, the real, or logical subject is made emphatic by being put after the copula: the pronoun es taking its place as a grammatical subject: as, es hebt die Freiheit ihre Fahne auf, liberty up lifts her standard. When, again, either the copula or the predicate is to be rendered emphatic, they exchange places: thus, (predicate emphatic) sterben” müssen Alle, die must all. The chief places in which the copula receives the stress, are, a. in direct questions; as, schreibt der Mann? b. in imperatives; as, sprechen Sie mit ihm; c. in the case of mögen, when used to express a wish; as, möge es der Himmel geben! d. in cases where surprise (generally with tech) is to be expressed; as, ist doch die Start wie gekehrt! (3) When, on any one of those words which, in the natural order, come between the copula and the predicate, we wish to lay special emphasis, it must be put either before the other words standing between the copula and the predicate, or else before the subject. In this latter case, however, the subject and the copula exchange places: thus, nur von Grlem fann Gries flammen; where the common order would be: Grles kann nur von Grlem stammen. These inversions, however, chiefly occur when principal and subordinate sentences are connected by conjunctions. $ 160. SENTENCES: PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE. (1) A principal sentence is one that expresses by itself an independent proposition: thus, It was reported; He deserves ; John toils. (2) A subordinate sentence is one that serves as the complement to a principal sentence; and without which it conveys no complete idea. Thus, in the expressions, It was reported, that the town was taken; He deserves, that we should defend him; John toils, although he is rich: the first, in each case, is the principal, and the second the subordinate sentence. (3) In the natural order, the principal precedes the subor. dinate sentence But this order is often reversed; in which case the order of the subject and the copula in the principal sentence is also reversed. Thus, in the natural order we say, ich weiß, daß er es nicht thun fann, I know, that he cannot do it. Putting the subordinate sentence first, it will stand: baß er es nicht thun kann, weiß ich, that he cannot do it, know I. (4) When, however, the subordinate sentence comes in after the copula (i. e. before a part only) of the principal sentence, the natural order of the latter remains unchanged: as, ich fant, als ich in London ankam, meinen Freund nicht. (8) The following are the conjunctive adverbs, which are used to connect subordinate sentences with principal ones, after the manner of real conjunctions: außertem, daher, dann, alsdann, tarum, deßwegen, deshalb, dennoch, dessenungeachtet, nichtstestoweniger, deßgleichen, desto, einerseits, anderseits, endlich, ferner, folglich, gleichwohl, inreffen, hernach, nachher, jedoch, intessen, (indeß), ingleichen, in so fern, in nur, sonst, theils theils, übrigens, überdies, vielmehr, wohl, zutem, zwar so weit (so weit), kaum, mithin, nicht allein, nicht nur, nicht bloß, noch, stand before the subject: when, however, they come after the These all reverse the order of subject and copula, when they copula, the natural order of the sentence obtains. (9) Allein, tenn, fontern, und and eter always stand at the head of a sentence without influencing the order of the other words. ber and nämlich may, also, occupy the first place without changing the position of the other words. (10) Where a mood-auxiliary, or any such verb as takes the infinitive without zu, occurs together with another infinitive, the copula stands before the two infinitives: thus, wenn ich es hätte thun müssen, ac., not wenn ich thun müssen hätte. FRENCH READING S.-No. VI. MLLE DE LAJOLAIS. Le saisissement de la joie fut plus dangereux pour Mile de Lajolais que la douleur. La pauvre enfant tomba lourdement et sans connaissance sur le marbre de la galerie. Grâce aux soins de l'impératrice, de la princesse Hortense et de leurs dames, Mlle de Lajolais reprit bientôt connaissance."— Mon père, mon père! murmura-t-elle aussitôt qu'elle put parler. Oh! que je sois la première à lui annoncer sa grâce.3 Et se levant, elle voulut s'échapper des bras qui la retenaient; mais trop faible pour tant d'emotions diverses, elle y retomba sans force. -Rien ne presse maintenant, Mademoiselle, dit une des dames; prenez un peu de repos et de nourriture; vous irez! une heure plus tard. -Une heure plus tard! se récria Maria; vous voulez que je retarde d'une heure l'annonce de la vie à un homme condamné à mort, surtout quand cet homme est mon père. (5) In subordinate sentences, the common order of the leading parts differs from that of principal sentences, in making the copula come last, i. e. in making the copula and the pre-Oh! Madame ajouta-t-elle, se tournant vers l'impératrice, dicate exchange places. Examples: welcher mir den Brief Copula. brachte. brought. who to me the letter Der, ist. Er sagt daß er es nicht thun Er ist arm, (G) The subordinate sentence is usually connected with the principal one by means of some conjunctive word. The conjunctive word so employed is either a relative pronoun, a relative adverb, or some conjunction proper, expressing cause, condition, purpose, limitation, or the like. See the examples under the preceding paragraph. (7) The conjunction employed in connecting principal with subordinate sentences, are: als, auf daß, bevor, bis, ka, tafern, damit, raß, rieweil, che, falls, je, je nachdem, intem, nachdem, nun, ob, obgleich, obschen, obwohl, seittem, ungeachtet, währent, weil, wenn, wenn nicht wenn gleich, wenn schon, wenn auch, wie, wie auch, wiewohl, wo, wo fern, obwar. These all remove the copula to the end of the laissez-moi partir.... de grâce; songez que c'est mon père qu'il a sa grace, et qu'il ne le sait pas encore. -Soit, mon enfant, lui répondit l'excellente Joséphine; mais vous ne pouvez aller scule à sa prison.8 -Je suis bien venue scule à votre château,' répondit-elle vivement. 19 -Quek votre majesté nous permette d'accompagner Mlle de Lajolais, demandèrent à la fois plusieurs officiers et aidesde-camp de l'Empereur, que l'action pourtant bien naturelle de Mlle de Lajolais avait remplis d'admiration. -M. de Lavalette me rendra ce service," dit l'impératrice souriant' gracieusement à l'un d'eux; ainsi que Monsieur (désignant un aide-de-camp de service).-Vous vous servirezTM d'une de mes voitures; 15.... allez, Messieurs, je vous confic Me de Lajolais. 16 17 Bien qu'épuisée de fatigue, de besoin et d'émotion, Maria refusa de prendre et nourriture et repos. Elle voulut ellemême voir atteler les chevaux, presser les gens, et ne se tint en place" que lorsqu'elle et ses conducteurs furent installés sur les coussins de la voiture.18 * Le général Lavalette avait épousé une nièce de l'impératrice.12 Condamné à mort en 1815, il fut sauvé par le généreux dévouement de sa femme, 13 qui s'introd sit dans sa prison, et changea de vêtements avec lui, NOTES AND REFERENCES.-a. Sans connaissance, senseless.— b. reprit bientôt connaissance, soon recovered; from reprendre ; L. part ii., p. 104..-c. from pouvoir; L. part ii., p. 100.-d. que je sois, let me be.-e. from prendre; L. part ii., p. 100.-f. from aller; L. part ii., p. 76.-g. de grâce, I beseech you. -h. from savoir; L. part ii., p. 104.-i. soit, be it so.-j. vivement, hastily. -k. que, will; literally, let.-1. from sourire; L. part ii., p. 106. -m. vous vous servirez, you will use; L. S. 38, R. 2.-n. ne se tint en place, did not rest; literally, did not keep herself in one place. o. allié, related, connected.-p. from prendre; L. part. i., p. 100. SECTION IV. b Alors la voiture partit au galop de six bons chevaux: elle franchit avec une rapidité incroyable la distance qui séparait Saint-Cloud de la prison. Pendant tout le trajet, Maria, droite et roide, tenait les yeux fixés sur le chemin qu'elle avait encore à parcourir: son regard semblait vouloir dévorer la distance; 3 sa poitrine haletait, comme si c'était elle, au lieu des chevaux, qui traînât le carosse, et elle était pâle, si pâle, que deux ou trois fois ses compagnons lui adressèrent la parole, mais inutilement, elle ne les entendait pas. Quand la voiture s'arrêta, elle s'elança pardessus le marchepied avant que M. de Lavalette cût eu le temps de lui offrir la main pour descendre, et ne pouvant articuler que ce mot: vite, vite! elle parcourait les longs corridors de la prison, précédant le geôlier et ses guides, et répétant toujours vite, vite! Arrivée à la porte du cachot, il fallut bien qu'elle attendit que le geôlier en eût ouvert la serrure, et tiré deux énormes verrous; mais à peines la porte cut-elle cédé, que, se précipitant dans l'intérieur, elle alla tomber dans les bras de son père, en criant: Papa... . l'Empereur .... la vie. . . . grâce.... Elle ne put achever: sa voix sc perdait en longs' cris, chaque parole commencées finissait par un sanglot. NOTES AND REFERENCES.s.-a. Tenait, kept; L. S. 89, R. 1 b. parcourir, to travel; L. part ii., p. 98.-c. from trainer; L. S. 73, R. 3.-d. from pouvoir; L. part ii., p. 100, also L. part ii., § 138, R. (2).– .-e. il fallut bien qu'elle attendît, she was obliged to wait. f. L. S. 72, R. 1.-g. à peine, scarcely.-h. cédé, been opened; literally, yielded, given way.-i. longs, prolonged.—j. L. S. 98, R. 1.-k. from croire; L. part ii., p. 84.-7. chercher, to take. -m. L. S. 36, R. 2.-. vaincue, overcome; from vaincre; L. part ii., p. 108.-0. L. S 36, R. 2.-p. s'étaient effacécs, were forgotten; literally, obliterated.—q. auteurs de ses jours, parents. ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. (From the Edinburgh Evening Courant). SHORT-HAND. "The Society met in their Hall, 51, George-street, on Thursday, 16th February, 1854-Rev. Professor Kelland, M.A., President, in the chair. The following communication was made: On a New Principle of Stenography or Short-hand Writing. By Alexander Melville Bell, Esq., Edinburgh. The author stated that the novelty of this system consists in the adoption of a principle of writing the consonants of words, which renders altogether superfluous the insertion of vowel points, either at the beginning or in the middle of words-the presence or absence of preceding vowels being indicated by the mode in which the consonants are written. The following is the principle:Those letters only that, preceded by a vowel sound, are written of the full alphabetic size (this size being optional), and consonants that are not preceded by a vowel are written of such a manifestly subordinate size, as plaiuly and at a glance to indicate that they are not syllabic letters." Thus the writing not only shows at once where number of full-sized characters, the number of syllables of which vowels do, and where they do not occur, but also indicates, in the words are composed. The alphabet consists of simple straight and curved lines, to all of which the above principle of notation is applicable-each elementary sound being denoted by a single line. Distinctive vowel marks may be inserted in this system; but they are never necessary except in the writing of foreign words, proper names, etc. The consonant delineation presents this important -L'Empereur vous accorde votre grâce, général, lui dit-peculiarity, that the full-sized writing of those letters which have il, et vous la devez au courage et à la tendresse de votre a preceding vowel admits of the free insertion of vowel marks fille.11 where they may be required; while the contracted writing of the Le général de Lajolais crut un instant qu'on venait le chercher pour le conduire à la mort, et que sa fille ayant trompé la vigilance des gardiens, avait tout bravé pour lui faire ses adieux.m Mais M. de Lavalette le détrompa bientôt : 10 voyant que Maria vaincue par l'émotion ne pouvait articuler un son, il prit la parole: Puis avec une émotion dont il ne pouvait se défendre, il raconta au général de Lajolais tout ce que sa fille avait fait pour lui.12 Oh! combien elle était heureuse cette jeune fille !13 combien ce moment compensait et bien au delà, tout ce qu'elle avait souffert jusqu'alors; souffert! avait-elle réellement souffert? Elle ne s'en souvenait plus. Toutes ses souf. frances s'étaient effacées 14 devant son père qui la serrait avec transport dans ses bras. Il faut avoir souffert soi letters which have no preceding vowel precludes their insertion in principle of contracting the less important letters of syllables is the wrong places, or where they do not occur. The rudimental also applied to the less important syllables of words, and words of sentences, by writing without full-sized characters all prefixes and terminations, and words of the subordinate parts of speech-articles, prepositions, pronouns, and connectives. The effect of this is to give prominence to the radical syllables in each word, and the leading word in every sentence; and thus to make the words which are most important to the sense emphatic to the eye, as if presented in bold capitals on a printed page. A further application of the same principle consists in writing but one full-sized character in any word, thus giving prominence to the most distinctive syilable, that on which the accent falls. In this way words which occur with a double accentuation such as presént, present', desért, desert', etc. are distinguished in their different senses, without the use of separate accentual marks. This system claims a degree of simplicity in the acquisition, and an ease of legibility, which have hardly been approached-which, perhaps, can never be surpassed. The full alphabetic writing may be learned in an hour; and this, when familiarised by practice, may, with almost nothing new to learn, be contracted at pleasure, either into the curt or manuscript, or the more abbreviated reporting style, feet and syllables. Indeed, we cannot see the use of poetry, unless it be written in that rythmical catenee which distinguishes it from prose.-T. CLAYTON (Macclesfield): His answer to the Four Ball Question is correct. the 3, 5, and 8 gailons is right-YOUNG BEGINNER: The home trade is W. W, SNELLING (Stamford-street): His answer to the question about quite faished; we know no better lessons in Bookkeeping than those in the P. E.-A. H. Wood: See Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. The best way to study blank verse is to read poetry so written, especially Milton's Paradise Lost. Cassell's" Elements of Algebra" is the best.-J. PLODD (Luton): We don't J. M. (Greenock): Lidde.! and Scott's.-A. SUBSCRIBER (Oldham): know the best and cheapest. Craig's is pretty fair.-Jo. PuTTER (Ashtonunder-Lyne): Navigation must take its turn.-A Novica New Northroad): Study Dr. Beard's Lessons in English, especially the early ones, over and over again, and don't despair; have patience, and you will conquer. this. R.: Immediately.-IGNORAMUS (Wollaston): Blair's grammar is too old now; you have not solved the Dean's riddle. After some complimentary remarks made by the President and others, the thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Beil for communication; and were given to him from the chair." CORRESPONDENCE. MUTUAL IMPROVEMENT CLASS. Sia,-I take up my pen to trouble you in answering me a question, which, as it will be the last for some time, perhaps you will the more excuse. I am to sail for Alexandria, in Egypt, on the 20th of this month, to erect, or at least to aid in erecting, two bridges over the Nile, for the railway from that town to Cairo; and as I wil be, comparatively speaking, in the vicinity of the Holy Land, I wri ask if you could give me information as to the best route in either of these cities to Jerusalem, which, at the same time t be economical enough to suit a working man. I am an neer, and a Scotchman, inheriting many of the peculiaritiese my countrymen, and among these a love of travel; and as the days of my manhood have not been many, and my life has not as yet been ruined by vice, I think you will approve the step I am about to take, especially when you know that I will have abundant leisure for study. In order to fill up profitably these leisure hours, I have taken a good supply of books, and of the POPULAR EDUCATOR from the beginning to the "present number." Could I get the French Dictionary bound by the 16th inst., as I have a smattering of French which must be carefully improved in the short t me I have to stay? Before I came to London in October last, I was in Galashiels, and there I originated and carried on a "Mutual Improve ment Class" in geometry and arithmetic, which, I am happy to say, still goes on well. All the members did not take in the P. E., as their means (being apprentices) did not allow them; but some of them did take it in, and I studied the Arithmetical Lessons in it in order to prepare me for my duties; and I must say that I found not a few practical hints therein. It is true that I did not get my own education from the pages of the P. E., but in an ancient city on the east coast of Fifeshire, which you will recognise on the envelope of my letter. There I spent the winter of 1852-3, and benefited much by the classes taught in that city. One thing that greatly prevents private study is "extra time;" for when one has to work hard from 6 A.M. till 9 P.M., I wonder where the spare time is to come from. I write this letter to you at five in the morning, as I have no other time at present. People may talk about "supply and demand" as much as they like; but a "ten hours' bill" would "supply the time" which study requires; and nothing else will accomplish this much-needed boon. As the early-closing movement, however, in some branches of labour, gains much attention from the public, we would fain hope that our trade will be benefited before long. Indeed, were the men to respect themselves (which, alas! few do), instead of debasing themselves by vice, we would be able to overpower every opposition; but until the Maine Law is passed, hope keeps far in the distance. I will now draw to a close this too long letter (for an editor), and trusting you will answer me per post, for which purpose I enclose an envelope, etc., I am, Sir, yours respectfully, March 3rd, 1854. HOXTONIENSIS. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. MUTUAL INSTRUCTION CLASSES. FREE: M. De Langue, Professor of the French and Italian Languages, 14, Bulwark-street, Dover, Kent. Also, D. H., Mrs. Owen, Bookseiler, Greenock, Renfrewshire. NEARLY FREE: W, Y., Christ Church, Bermondsey.-JAS. GREEN (Dunmow): We know nothing of the book to which he refers; we advise him to study Dr. Beard's lessons in the P. E.-J. L. N. (Dublin): Under consideration.-A. M⋅LEOD (High Holborn) must study all the Rules in Cassell's Arithmetic, and all the (Sidmouth-street): Water can be made to attain a much higher tempera Lessons in Penmanship in the P. E., as well as those in Bookkeeping,—J. B. ture than 2129 Fahrenheit by inclosing it in a strong vessel; Perkins, who made experiments on the subject, asserted that water could be made red hot, provided that vessels could be obtained strong enough to resist the pressure of the water in endeavouring to assume the form of steam. In point.-LACO (Manchester); Ment at the end of French adverbs is promany high-pressure engines the water is carried much above the boiling nounced according to the rules laid down in Cassell's French Dictionary.— EDOUARD Louth): See Cassell's French Dictionary.-ONE WHOM THE P. E. &c.: The solution is too complicated: try again. T. M. C. (Plymouth): Number is a necessary adjunct to true poetry, though not to true poetical ideas. Pope says "he spake in numbers, for the numbers came." Milton also writes his poetry in numbers, or in measured ESPERANZA (Barnsley): Inquire at the French consulate in the nearest town.-IGNORANCE Great Ayton): Astronomy as soon as possible.-A WEEKLY PURCHASER (St. Mary-street): Surely the capital must have been a receipt and not a payment; surely the transactions with the bank are real cash transactions; surely stock account and the London and Westminster Bank are sundries, i.e. two or more accounts —J. C. (Eltham): Wrong on the Four Ball Question.-H. SMITH (Birmingham): "Cassell's Lessons in English," and "Cassell's Lessons in Latin."-A. W. F. (Cambuslang): You may get a very good old Latin Dictionary for a shilling or two at a book-sta!! in Glasgow, Edinburgh, or London, which will serve your purpose till "Cassell's Latin Dictionary "be ready; and you will get it in America, when published, through Mr. Cassell's agent in New York.-A CORRES PONDENT (Chester), whose name we can't read, wishes his Cestrian brethren to form a "Mutual Instruction Class." We hope they will begin with our Lessons in Penmanship. M. W. N. may get a second-hand copy of an English Herodotus for three pretty cheap. A copy of the Greek, without notes, might be got for five or or four shillings. The translation published by Bohn is very good and six shillings. We are not aware that Colonel Rawlinson has published any other work. LITERARY NOTICES. CASSELL'S LATIN DICTIONARY, BY J. R. BEARD, D.D. The publication of this Dictionary has commenced, and will be completed in about Twenty-six Numbers, THREEPENCE each, or in Monthly Parts, ONE SHILLING each. Eight Numbers, as well as the First Two Parts, are now ready. CASSELL'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY.-The FRENCH and ENGLISH portion of this important Dictionary is now completed, and may be had, price 4s, or strongly bound, 5s.-The ENGLISH and FRENCH portion is in the course of publication, and will be completed in about Twelve Numbers, THREE PENCE each. The entire Dictionary, forming one handsome volume, will be ready in a few days, price 9s. 6d. CASSELL'S GERMAN PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY.-The GERMANENGLISH Portion of this Dictionary is now ready, price 5s in stiff covers, or 58. 6d. strong cloth.-The ENGLISH-GERMAN Portion will be completed as quickly as possible, in Numbers, THREEFENCE each; and the entire Volume, strongly bound, at 9s., will shortly be issued. been ackowledged by those who have studied them to be the easiest intro CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN. Parts I. and 11.-These Lessons have duction to the German Tongue which has ever been published in the English Language. Price 28, each, in paper covers, or 2s. 6d. cloth.-The Two Parts bound together, price 4s. 6d. CASSELL'S ECLECTIC GERMAN READER: containing choice selections from the best German Authors, in Prosre and Verse, with a complete Dictionary of all the Words employed, and copious references to "Cassell's Lessons in German," Parts I. and II., to which it is intended to serve as a Supplement. Price 28. in paper covers, or 2s. 6d. bound in cloth. CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN PRONUNCIATION: consisting of easy Extracts from German Writers, with interlinear directions for the Pronun clation of every Word, and a Dictionary explaining the meaning of each. By means of these directions, a person knowing nothing of German previously, may at once pronounce the language so as to be easily understood by a native. Price is. in stiff covers, or Is. 6d, neatly bound. END OF VOL. IV. LONDON: JOHN CASSELL, PRINTER, LUDGATE-HILL. |