enlightened part of the community. We will not say that a man, with less attainment, than we shall describe, may not keep a good school; we have no doubt that many do. Yet if the profession is to be really respectable, and truly deserving of the regard of an enlightened people, we must have a still higher standard of qualification than we shall now insist on. The following is a list of the studies of which every teacher should have a competent knowledge. We add also to each such word of comment as appears to be necessary.

line map were not at hand, he ought to be able to draw one from memory, at least, of each of the grand divisions of the earth.

5. HISTORY.-The teacher should be acquainted with history,-at least, the history of his own country. He can hardly teach geography successfully without a competent knowledge of both ancient and modern history. It should, in the main, be taught in our common schools in connection with geography.

6. MENTAL ARITHMETIC.-Let every teacher be thoroughly versed in some good work on this subject. Cassell's is probably the best that has been prepared. It is not enough that the teacher is able in some way to obtain the answers to the questions proposed. He should be able to give the reason for every step in the process he takes to obtain them, and to do it value of this branch as a discipline for the mind.

1. ORTHOGRAPHY.-This implies something more than mere spelling. Spelling is certainly indispensable. No person should ever think of teaching who is not an accurate speller. But the nature and powers of letters should also be mastered. We have in our language about forty elementary sounds; yet we have but twenty-six characters to represent them. Our alphabet is therefore imperfect. This imperfection is aug-in a clear and concise manner. It is this which constitutes the mented by the fact that several of the letters are employed each to represent several different sounds. In other cases, two letters combined represent the element. There are also letters, as e, q, and x, which have no sound that is not fully represented by other letters. Then a very large number of our letters are silent in certain positions, while they are fully sounded in others. It were much to be desired that we might have a perfect alphabet, that is, as many characters as we have elementary sounds, and that each letter should have but one sound. For the present this cannot be; and the present generation of teachers, at least, will have to teach our present orthography. Those systems of orthography are much to be preferred which begin with the elementary sounds, and then present the letters as their representatives, together with the practice of analysing words into their elements, thus showing at once the silent letters and the equivalents. These systems may be taught in half the time that the old systems can be; and when acquired, they are of much greater practical utility to the learner.

2. READING.-Every teacher should be a good reader. Not more than one in every hundred among teachers can now be called a good reader. To be able to read well, implies a quick perception of the meaning as well as a proper enunciation of the words. It is a branch but poorly taught in most of our schools. Many of the older pupils get above reading before they have learned to read well; and, unfortunately, many of our teachers cannot awaken an interest in the subject, because very likely they cannot read any better than their

scholars.

It would be interesting to ascertain how large a proportion of our youth leave the schools without acquiring the power readily to take the sense of any common paragraph which they may attempt to read. In this way we account for the fact that so many cease to read as soon as they leave school. It costs them so much effort to decipher the meaning of a book, that it counteracts the desire for the gratification and improvement it might otherwise afford. It should not be so." The teacher should be a model of good reading; he should be enthusiastic in this branch, and never rest till he has excited the proper interest in it among the pupils, from the oldest to the youngest in the school.

It would be well if our teachers could be somewhat acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages, as this would afford them great facilities in comprehending and defining many of our own words. As this cannot be expected for the present, a substitute may be sought in some analysis of our derivative words. Several works have somewhat recently been prepared, to supply, as far as may be, the wants of those who have not studied the classics. We should advise every teacher, for his own benefit, to master some one of

these.

3. WRITING. It is not respectable for the teacher of the young to be a bad writer; nor can it ever become so, even should the majority of bad writers continue to increase. The teacher should take great pains to write a plain, legible hand. This is an essential qualification.

4. GEOGRAPHY. A knowledge of the principles of geography is essential. This implies an acquaintance with the use of globes, and the art of map-drawing. The teacher should be so well versed in geography, that with an outline map of any country before him, he could give an intelligent account of its surface, people, resources, history, etc.; and if the out

7. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC.-This everybody demands of the teacher; and he is scarcely in danger of being without fair pretensions in this branch. He should, however, know it by its principles, rather than by its rules and facts. He should so understand it, that if every arithmetic in the world should be burned, he could still make another, constructing its rules and explaining their principles. He should understand arith metic so well, that he could teach it thoroughly though text-books should be excluded from his school-room. This is not demanding too much. Arithmetic is a certain science, and used every day of one's life,-the teacher should be an entire master of it.

8. ENGLISH GRAMMAR.-It is rare that a teacher is found without some pretensions to English grammer; yet it s deplorable to observe how very few have any liberal or philo sophical aquaintance with it. In many cases it is little ese than a system of barren technicalities. The teacher studies one book, and too often takes that as his creed. In no science is it more necessary to be acquainted with several authors The person who has studied but one text-boa on grammer, even if that be the best one extant, is but poorly qua.fied to teach this branch. There is a philosophy of language which teacher should carefully study; and if within his power, he should have some acquaintance with the peculiar structure of other languages besides his own. It can hardly be expected that the common teacher should acquire an accurate know ledge of other languages by actually studying them. As substitute for this, we would recommend that the teacher should very carefully read the little work of Dr. Bear "Cassell's Lessons in English," also the article "Grammer" in the Edinburgh and other encyclopedias. In this science the mind naturally runs to bigotry; and there is no science where the learner is apt to be so conceited upon small aquiremen as in grammer. Let the teacher spare no pains to master the subject.

9. ALGEBRA. This branch is not yet required to be taught all our schools; yet the teacher should have a thorough acquaintance with it. Even if he is never called upon to teach it (and it never should be introduced into our comm schools till very thorough attainments are more common in the other branches), still it so much improves the mind of t teacher, that he should not be without a knowledge of it. H will teach simple arithmetic much better for knowing algebr We consider an acquaintance with it indispensable to the thorough teacher, even of the common school.

10. GEOMETRY. The same may be said of this branch that has been said of algebra. Probably nothing disciplines the mind more effectually than the study of geometry. The teacher should pursue it for this reason. He will teach other things the better for having had this discipline, to say nothing of the advantage which a knowledge of the principles of geometry will give him in understanding and explaining the branches of mathematics.

11. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY AND SURVEYING. In many of our schools these branches are required to be taught. The are important branches in themselves, and they also afford good exercise for the mind in their acquisition. The young teacher, especially the male teacher, should make the acquirement.

most of our district schools. The teacher, however, should 12. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.-This branch is not taught in

understand it better than it is presented in many of the simple text-books on this subject. He should have studied the philosophy of its principles, and be fully acquainted with their demonstration. If possible, he should have had an opportunity also of seeing the principles illustrated by experiment. This is a great field; let not the teacher be satisfied with eropping a little of the herbage about its borders.

13. CHEMISTRY.-As a matter of intelligence, the teacher should have acquaintance with this branch. It is comparatively a new science, but it is almost a science of miracles. It is beginning to be taught in our common schools; and that department of it which relates to agriculture is destined to be of vast importance to the agricultural interests of our country. Instead of conjecture, and hazard, and doubt, and experiment, as heretofore, a knowledge of the composition of soils, the food of plants, and the processes of nature in the culture and growth of crops, would elevate agriculture to a conspicuous rank among the exact sciences. The teacher should not be behind the age in this department.

paper; others use books, but without any system, order, or intelligibility; and others still mark their scores in chalk or charcoal upon the panel of the cellar-door!

The teacher should qualify himself not only to understand this subject, but to teach it in such a way that it can be easily comprehended by the classes in our common schools.

19. DRAWING. The good teacher should understand the principles of drawing. He should also be able to practise his art. It is of great consequence to him. Without neglect of other things, children can be very profitably taught this art in the common schools. In the absence of apparatus, it is the teacher's only way of addressing the eye of his pupils in illustrating his teaching. Every teacher should take pains not only to draw, but to draw well.

20. VOCAL MUSIC.-It is not absolutely essential, though very desirable, to the good teacher, that he should understand music theoretically and practically. Music is becoming an exercise in our best schools; and wherever introduced and results. It promotes good reading and speaking, by disciplinjudiciously conducted, it has been attended with pleasing ing the ear to distinguish sounds; and it also facilitates the cultivation of the finer feelings of our nature. It aids very much in the government of the school, as its exercise gives vent to that restlessness which otherwise would find an escapement in boisterous noise and whispering,-and thus it often proves a safety valve, through which a love of vociferation and activity may pass off in a more harmless and a more pleasing way. "The schoolmaster that cannot sing," says Martin Luther, "I would not look upon." Perhaps this language is too strong; but it is usually more pleasant to look upon a school where the schoolmaster can sing.

14. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.-The teacher should well understand this subject. There is an unpardonable ignorance in the community as to the structure of the human body, and the laws of health, the observance of which is, in general, a condition of longevity, not to say of exemption from disease. By reference to statistics, it has been ascertained that almost a fourth part of all the children that are born die before they are one year old. More than one-third die before they are five years of age; and before the age of eight, more than one-half of all that are born return again to the earth! Of those who survive, how many suffer the miseries of lingering disease, almost sighing for death to deliver them from the pangs of life! There is something deplorably wrong in our philosophy of living, else the condition of man would not so commonly appear an exception to the truth that God does all things well. Dr. Woodward, late of the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, says: "From the cradle to the grave, we suffer punishment for the violation of the laws of health and life. I have no doubt that half the evils of life, and half the deaths that occur among mankind, arise from ignorance of these natural laws; and that a thorough knowledge of them would diminish the sufferings incident to our present state of being in very nearly the same proportion." We know not how an acquain-sibly could, taking into view the present condition and wants tance with these laws can be in any way so readily extended as through the agency of our teachers of the young. At any rate the teacher himself should understand them, both for his own profit and the means thus afforded him of being directly useful in the discharge of his duties to others. We have already shown that he is responsible to a great extent for the bodily health of his pupils. A thorough knowledge of physiology will enable him to meet this responsibility.

15. INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.-This is necessary for the teacher. His business is with the mind. He, of all men, should know something of its laws and its nature. He can know something, indeed, by observation and introspection; but he should also learn by careful study. His own improvement demands it, and his usefulness depends upon it.

16. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.-A knowledge of this may be insisted on for the same reasons which apply to intellectual philosophy. It is so important that the moral nature of the child be rightly dealt with, that he is a presumptuous man who attempts the work without the most careful attention to this subject.

17. RHETORIC AND LOGIC.-These are of great service to the teacher personally as means of mental discipline and the cultivation of his own taste. Even if he is never to teach them, they will afford him much assistance in other departments of instruction. He certainly should have the advantage of them.

18. BOOK-KEEPING.-Every teacher should know something of book-keeping, at least by single entry; and also be conversant with the ordinary forms of business. The profound ignorance on this subject among teachers is truly astonishing. Book-keeping should be a common-school study. But this study, which in practical life comes home to the interest not only of every merchant, but of every farmer, every mechanic, in short every business man, is almost entirely neglected in the schools. Some persons still keep their accounts on bits of

We have thus gone through with a list of studies which, it seems to us, every one who means to be a good teacher, even of a common school, should make himself acquainted with. We would not condemn a teacher who, having other good qualities, and a thorough scholarship as far as he has gone, might lack several of the branches above named. There have been many good teachers without all this attainment; but how much better they might have been with it!

We have made this course of study as limited as we posof our schools. No doubt even more will be demanded in a few years. We would have the present race of teachers so good, that they shall be looked upon by those who succeed them as their "worthy and efficient predecessors."

influence, and consequently his usefulness, in proportion as We ought in this place to add, that the teacher increases his he makes himself conversant with general knowledge. This is too much neglected. The teacher, by the fatigue of his em ployment and the circumstances of his life, is strongly tempted to content himself with what he already knows, or at best to confine himself to the study of those branches which he is called upon to teach. He should stoutly resist this temptation. He should always have some course of study marked out, which he will systematically pursue. He should, as soon as possible, make himself acquainted generally with the subject of astronomy, the principles of geology, in short, the various branches of natural history. He will find one field after another open before him, and if he will but have the perseverance to press forward, even in the laborious occupation of teaching, he may make himself a well-informed man.

We will venture one other suggestion. We have found it a most profitable thing in the promotion of our own improvement, to take up annually, or oftener, some particular subject to be pursued with reference to writing an extended lecture upon it. This gives point to the course of reading, and keeps the interest fixed. When the thorough investigation has been made, let the lecture be written from memory, embodying all the prominent points, and presenting them in the most striking and systematic manner. It should be done, too, with reference to accuracy and even elegance of style, so that the composition may be yearly improved. In this way certain subjects are for ever fixed in the mind. One who carefully reads for a definite object, and afterwards writes the results from memory, never loses his hold upon the facts thus appropriated.

enlightened part of the con man, with less attainmen keep a good school; we the profession is to be re of the regard of an enligh higher standard of qual The following is a list should have a competen such word of comment

1. ORTHOGRAPHY.-'! spelling. Spelling is should ever think of t But the nature and p We have in our lang. we have but twenty alphabet is therefor mented by the fact each to represent sev letters combined re as e, q, and x, whic sented by other le letters are silent 1: sounded in others have a perfect alph elementary sound sound. For the generation of tea orthography. T preferred which present the let: practice of an. at once the si may be taught and when ac to the learner 2. READIN more than called a go perception the words schools. they have our teac because scholars.

1. Given the base 777, and perpendicular 345, to find the hypothenuse and angles.

2. Given the hypothenuse 321, and the angle at the base 48° 17', to find the base and perpendicular.

3. Given the perpendicular 543, and the angle at the base 72° 45', to find the hypothenuse and base.

4. Given the hypothenuse 666, and base 432, to find the angles and perpendicular.

5. Given the base 634, and the angle at the base 53° 27', to find the hypothenuse and perpendicular.

6. Given the hypothenuse 1234, and perpendicular 555, to find the base and angles.

When two sides of a right-angled triangle are given, the third may be found by means of the property that the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

Hence h = √√/b2 + p2 ; b = √ h2 — p2 ; p = √√/ h2 — b2.
Ex. 1. If the base is 2720, and the perpendicular 3104,
what is the hypothenuse?
Ans. 4127.

part, a portion, or an individual involved in their collective signification: e.g.

τα τοῦ σώματος μέρη και μέλη

the parts and members of the body.

ανηρ του δήμου

a man of the people.

Adjectives in the superlative degree govern a genitive of the class: e.g.

μεγιστον εστι τῶν ἀγαθῶν αρετη
virtue is the greatest of good things.

When, however, the superlative signifying a very high degree of the quality does not involve a comparison, it stands in the same case as the noun which it qualifies: e.g.

Κύρος ευδοκιμωτατος βασιλευς γεγένηται
Cyrus was a very illustrious king,

Verbs which are derived from a superlative, or express a verbs are those which denote to govern, to rule, to be superior, superlative idea, require their object in the genitive. Such 23 αρχειν, to rule; πρωτεύειν, to be first; κρατιστεύειν, το master; apioTEV, to be the best; rupavveiv, to govern as a usurper; Bariλever, to reign, to reign over; yeμovevel, to be in command as a general; nyeolai, to rule; morareiv, to sway; πроσTаTTev, to enjoin, direct; orparnys, to command an army, to be a general; vavapxeiv, to command a fleet, to

be an admiral.

The verb aranov may take either a genitive or a dative. When nyoba signifies to lead, to act as a leader, it governs a dative.

Verbs which denote an action that affects the object only in part, put that object in the genitive. Such verbs are, μETEXELS, to share, κοινωνειν, to have in common; μεταλαμβάνειν, τα partake of; tradidoval, to give another a portion of; xave, to fall upon, to obtain; avriav, to light on, to meet with; Anpovoμsiv, to acquire by inheritance; avrirauita, μεταποιεῖσθαι, to claim. Such verbs, also, are those which signify to touch (areσbai, avev, Olyyavey); to be near, to border on, to approach (εγγίζειν, πλησιάζειν); to hold to 201 thing (έχεσθαι, αντεχεσθαι, αντιλαμβάνεσθαι); to strike, to hit, to reach (τυγχάνειν, εξικνεῖσθαι, εφικνεῖσθαι); to sim Δ' (στοχάζεσθαι); to tread on (επιβαινειν). In the same category may be placed verbs which mean to begin (apxew, apyra to attempt, to endeavour (paolai); to taste (yeveobai); to cause another to taste (Yevev). Instances are given in the

Ex. 2. If the hypothenuse is 514, and the perpendicular exercise. In addition, take this one from Menander: 432, what is the base?

LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. LX.

By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.

IMFORT AND USE OF THE GENITIVE.

THE genitive is the case of the determinative attribute expressed by a substantive. The genitive, consequently, serves for the expression of an object which is so blended with another as to individualise that other.

νόμων έχεσθαι παντα δει τον σώφρονα the wise man ought to cleave to the laws. The construction of these verbs is followed by a number of adjectives which involve the idea of participation, or the ides of proximity and touching. Such adjectives are, prox sharing; apopog, having no share in; ueros, in the middle. Evavτios, opposite. So, also, adverbs of similar import govern the genitive, as εγγυς, near ; οπισθεν, behind, πέραν, on the

other side.

According to the analogy of verbs meaning to touch, the poets construe verbs which signify to entreat, as it was cus tomary in supplication to touch the person to whom prayer was addressed; the part touched was put in the genitive: e.g.

The numerous applications of the genitive may be ranged under three principal heads:-1. The genitive denotes an object to which another belongs as a part or member; this is ἱκετεύω σε τῶνδε γουνατών και σου γενείου called the genitivus partitivus, the partitive genitive. 2. The I implore thee by these knees and by thy beard. genitive denotes an object to which another belongs as a pos- So, also, may the person entreated be put in the genitive: f session or property; this is called the genitivus possessivus (hence the English term for the genitive, namely, the "possessive case"), the genitive of possession. 3. The genitive denotes an object from which another proceeds, by which another is produced (hence the name genitive, from gigno, I beget) or occasioned; this is called the genitivus auctoris, or the genitivus materia, or again, the genitivus causalis, the causal or originating genitive.

Taking up these three heads in succession, we have

1. The Partitive Genitive.

With nouns denoting a part or number of a whole, the whole is put in the genitive case. So are collective nouns put in the genitive, being governed by the word that signifies a

a

λίσσομαι Ζηνος Ολυμπίου

I entreat Olympian Jupiter.

part only of the object spoken of is intended, the partitive So, when with verbs which ordinarily govern an accusative genitive is used: e.g.

Έδωκά σοι των χρημάτων
He gave thee some money.

Thus the Grecks said, πινειν οινον, and πίνειν οίνον,

2. The Genitive of Possession

is generally used when it is intended to intimate that an object in some sense belongs to a person. This is the strictly proper