acts may be defined as regards place and time, sequence, manner, means, degree, and limitation. We have therefore numerous phrases and clauses supplying more definite forms of expression. Such are, e.g. 'I went away in haste' (Preposition and Noun); Thou away, the birds are mute' (Noun Absolute); 'We stayed there three days' (Adjective and Noun); 'He learns by teaching' (Preposition and Gerund). 15. Q. Mention the commonest ter minations of Adverbs in AngloSaxon, and give instances of each. A. (1) The regular termination for forming Adverbs from Adjectives was -e,-e.g. beorht-e, brightly; lang-e, long; gelic-e, likely. There were also (2) Adverbs in -unga (inga),as,eallunga, entirely; færinga, suddenly. In grund-lunga, from the ground, an / is inserted. This is the termination which appears in darkling and similar words. (3) Adverbs were formed from independent words by the termination malum, Dat. plural of mal), as floce-mælum, (troop-wise; sceaf-mælum, sheafwise; stycce-mælum, piece-meal. 16. Q. Criticise the expression, 'Don't do more than you can help.' A. Logically expressed, this should be, 'Don't do more than you can't help.' A moment's consideration will make this apparent. You cannot help doing, say, a certain amount, and the advice given you is not to do more than that. The error in this expression may be traced to the same instinct which has substituted never for ever in 'Be they never so many,' although this is an expression that, as it stands, is perfectly intelligible. Probably, however, people will continue to say, 'Don't do more than you can help,' in spite of all argument to the contrary. 17. Q. Explain the words in italics (a) Thy thoughts which are to us ward.'-Psalm xl. 5. (b) 'Give ear to my suit, Lord; fromward hide not Thy face. Psalm lv., paraphrased by Surrey. A. In (a) the elements of the word toward (A.S. tó-weard) are separated, so that 'to us ward' is written for toward us. In (b) fromward is an Adverb of a similar kind, and means 'away,' or 'away from.' 18. Q. What is faulty or erroneous in the expression by inch-meal'? A. The expression is tautological, inasmuch as the word inchmeal itself means 'by inches.' 19. Q. How do you explain the a in expressions like thrice a year and a half-penny a day?' What is the derivation of Jackanapes? A. It is sometimes assumed that this a is the Indefinite Article used distributively. But a reference to old writers shows that this view is erroneous, inasmuch as they write 'thrice on year' (A.S. on geare) and a half-penny on day.' The a is therefore a contraction of the Preposition on. In a few instances a is a weakened form of of, as in man-a-war, Jack-an-apes (Jack-ofapes). In the last word a has become an before a vowel. 20. Q. Is there any exception to the statement that an Adverb is a word which may be moved, about, without destroying the sense of the expression, from one part of a sentence to another? A. This will not apply, at all events, to the Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs, as, e.g. I know not whither he has gone;' 'Tell me whence this dissatisfaction arose.' ors, as needs, unawares, betimes. These words, however, retained their position in the dialect of the upper VI. SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word that denotes the relationship subsisting between a Noun (or its equivalent) and its dominating word, as, 'She was the fairest (Dominating Word) in the face' (Noun). 'I hated him with the hate (Dominating Word) of hell' (Noun). -Tennyson's Sisters.' Prepositions are said to govern, but their function is quite distinct from that of Transitive Verbs. Case of the word governed by a Preposition. In Anglo-Saxon, Prepositions governed the Accusative, Dative, and Genitive. Some Prepositions governed all the three according to the shade of meaning expressed, e.g. with. Accusative. Tha tyn leorning cnihtas gebulgon with th twegen gebrothru. Dative. The ten learning-knights (disciples) wer angry against the two brothers. We willath with tham golde grith faestnian. We are willing in-consideration of the gol to establish peace. Genitive. Tha wende he hine west with Exanceastres. Then turned he him west towards Exeter. In Latin some Prepositions govern two Cases, the Accusa ive and Ablative, e.g. in. Accusative. Ablative. In cœlum ascendere = to ascend into heaven. Cædes in Appia via facta est = A murder wa committed on the Appian Road. In Greek certain Prepositions could govern three case viz. the Accusative, Dative, and Genitive, e.g. apa. Accusative.-τὰ δ ̓ αὖτις ἴτην παρὰ νῆας=they went agai to the ships. Dative. Genitive. παρὰ νηυσὶ κωρωνίσι μιμνάζειν = to linge near the curved ships. ἀπονοστεῖν παρὰ νηῶν=to return from th ships. Is the English Dative ever governed by a Preposition? This question turns upon whether such words as like, near etc., are Prepositions governing a Dative, or Adjectives modifie by a Dative. We think the latter, from a study of the following examples A.S., Eow gelic =Like you. Here gelic is an Adject. and eow a Dative = Latin, Simile vero Like the truth. Here simile vero Like is therefore not a Preposition, and does not govern th Dative; and from the foregoing considerations we conclud that invariably in Modern English Prepositions govern the Objective Case, but the Objective relation is not indicated by them. Substantive preceded by a Preposition always constitutes either an Attributive Adjunct or an Adverbial Adjunct, e.g.(1) Attributive AdjunctsA horse for riding. (2) Adverbial Adjuncts He is guilty of murder. A man on horseback. He shivered the statue with a blow. Place of Prepositions. Prepositions are so called (see Derivation) because they are generally placed before a Noun or Pronoun, e.g. In winter; up Mount Blanc; from India; to you and me. But in colloquial language and in poetry the Preposition is allowed to stand at the end of the sentence : (1) At the end of Adjective clauses, e.g. Show me the man whom you spoke to. This is invariably the case with the Relative that— (2) And Interrogative sentences, e.g.— Where are you going to? What is this made of? (3) 'Whose turf, whose shade, whose flowers among, Wanders the hoary Thames along.'--Gray's Ode to Eton. The Preposition should be placed (1) close to its (logically) governing word, (2) (a) close to the words it (grammatically) governs, and (b) in a not ambiguous position. The following are therefore objectionable : (1) 'Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe, Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, Heavenly Muse.'-Paradise Lost, the opening lines. (2a)' These more sterling qualities of strict moral conduct, regular religious habits, temperate and prudent behaviour, sober and industrious life, he had nothing of.”—Brougham's 'Life of Wilkes,' quoted by Angus. (Conundrum.) Every lady in the land Has twenty nails, upon each hand The proper arrangement would be :— Five upon each hand, and on hands and feet twenty. The needless insertion of a Preposition is to be avoided, e.g.— We entreat of thee to hear us (for 'We entreat thee'). His servants ye are to whom ye obey (for whom ye obey'). So also is the omission of Prepositions when the sense requires them, e.g. 'God expelled them the garden.'-Blair. (Supply from.) A This is worthy your notice. (Supply of.) Prepositions are frequently placed after Verbs, as enclitics, to modify the original meaning of the Verb, as 'Tie up the knocker; say I'm sick, I'm dead.'—Pope. Note.-The Preposition must then be parsed as an Adverb, unless it forms a Compound Verb of altered meaning, e.g. I give-in. This suffixed Preposition often makes an Intransitive Verb transitive, as 'Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee, At all his jokes, for many a joke had he.'- Goldsmith. Beware of uniting the metaphorical and local uses of a Preposition, e.g. I come from England, and a good motive. Dickens and other humorous writers often produce ludicrous effects by this incongruous combination, e.g. He found her in tears and muslin. She flew upon him with fury and a broomstick. Save he and Save him. Save and except are sometimes considered as Imperatives, If this view be adhered to, the use of the Nominative after these words will be considered ungrammatical. Shakespeare |