See Judges ix. 53. (c) To is here an ordinary Preposition. (d) In 'Go to now,' to is used Adverbially. (e) To and do together form a Substantive in provincial English, but, literally, the words consist of a Preposition and Infinitive. Compare the French phrase, beaucoup à faire. 15. Q. What Prepositions are used with adapted, conformable, differ, dependent, independent, provide, composed, connect, consequent, expert? A. Adapted to a thing and for a purpose; conformable to; differ from; dependent on or upon; independent of; provide for, with, and against; composed of (material), and by (maker); connect with; consequent on; expert at or in. 16. Q. Name the three Prepositions that are Comparatives. A. These are after, over, under. After is the Comparative of af= from. Compare Latin ab, Greek ἀπό. Over is the Comparative of uf, a form which is not found but postulated by philologists. word appears in offing, and corresponds to the German auf. Under This is the Comparative of un (?). That it is a Comparative is certain, but there exists no form from which it can be shown to be derived. The -der is the same Comparative suffix that appears as -ter in after, and as -ther in whether. 17. Q. State the meaning of the expressions to fall in,' 'to fall off, to fall out,' 'to fall upon,' to fall to.' A. These expressions mean respectively-(1) 'to get into order' (said of a company of soldiers); (2) 'to deteriorate; (3) to happen and to quarrel;' (4) 'to light on, to attack;' (5) 'to begin eagerly.' 18. Q. Name some of the AngloSaxon Prepositions, and state by what case each was followed. A. Some Prepositions governed the Dative (Instr.), such as, after (after), at (at), ar (before), be (by), binnan (within), butan (above), butan (outside), for (for), fram (from), of (of), to (to). Others governed the Accusative, as, thurh (through), geond (throughout), ymbe (around). 19. Q. Which of the Anglo-Saxon Prepositions (like in in Latin) governed two cases? A. The Prepositions in (in), ofer (over), on (on), under (under), took the Accusative when motion was implied, and when rest was implied they took the Dative. Thus on, with the Accusative, signified 'into,' and with the Dative, 'in.' This rule, however, was not strictly observed. Sometimes we find the Accusative used with Verbs of rest, e.g. His hús ofer stán getimbrode, 'He built his house upon a rock;' and conversely the Dative for the Accusative, as in Sume feollon on stanihte, 'Some fell on stony ground. 20. Q. Mention any other peculiarity of the Anglo-Saxon Prepositions. A. Prepositions often followed their Nouns instead of preceding them, often too with other words intervening, e.g. He him to cwath ('He said to him '), East dælum on ('In the east regions'), We him ne cunnon after spyrigean ('We can. not follow after them'), Hi thar genamon inne ealle tha gehadodan menn ('They took therein'-the two parts are separated-'all the monastic men, i.e. the men in orders'). 21. Q. Explain the expressions maugre min,' 'or ere,' 'anent,' 'sans teeth sans eyes.' A. Maugre min had the meaning, in Middle English, of 'in spite of me.' Here min is the Genitive Case, governed by the Preposition. Or ere is a mere reduplication, like an if; for or is only another form of ere (before). It seems to have acquired the sense of 'ere ever' (Tempest i. 2). Anent (A.S. en-efn) is an old Preposition meaning 'respecting.' Sans, a French word from the Latin sine, has gone out of use, but was occasionally employed by Shakespeare. 22. Q. Give an instance of the use of along in the sense of on account of.' Was the original form of these two expressions the same or different in AngloSaxon ? A. An instance (from Shakespeare) is 'All this is 'long of you.' -Coriolanus v. 4. and in Sir Walter Scott's Fortunes of Nigel occur the words, 'All along of the accursed gold.' Dr. Morris seems to assert that the A.S. form of 'along,' in the sense of 'on account of,' was ge-lang. The A.S. form of the word in its ordinary sense was and-lang or ond-lang. VII. SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions are connective words, which have neither Pronominal, Adverbial, nor a Prepositional signification. They connect words, clauses, and sentences, but do not govern. The conjoined words 'must be' of the same Case. He reported the matter both to me and you. The Verbs connected are 'generally' of the Men may come and men may go: (Same Mood.) 'Men may come and men may go, But I go on for ever.' (Different Moods.) Who was and is and is-to-come. (Different Tenses.) When several singular Nouns are connected by a Copulative Conjunction, they are followed by a Verb in the plural, e.g.— 'Cold diffidence and age's frost In the full tide of song were lost.'-Scott. But when the Conjunction is Disjunctive, they take a Verb in the singular. Therefore the following line is faulty: Nor lute nor lyre his feeble steps attend. Conjunctions with the Subjunctive Mood., Conjunctions that are intended to express uncertainty, whether of condition (if, unless, as though), of concession (though, however), of purpose (that, in-order-that), or of time, place, and manner, require the Subjunctive (Angus). If it were not so, I would have told you. (Condition.) And. And serves to indicate a natural sequence, or a likeness of two assertions, e.g. The sky was darkened and the rain fell in torrents. A false witness shall not go unpunished; and he that speaketh lies shall perish. No other Conjunction has all the uses of and. The following words serve here and there to take its place:—also, besides, further, meanwhile, now, even. Eke is altogether obsolete. 'And,' with the meaning of 'if.' This Conjunction appears at one time to have had the force of ‘if,' e.g.— Alcibiades bade the carter drive over, and he durst. Dr. Abbott says (Shakespearian Grammar, §§ 37, 38) that the hypothesis is expressed, not by the and, but by the Subjunctive of the Verb by which it is accompanied, and that and merely means, 'with the addition of,' just as but means 'leaving out' or 'minus.' He seems disinclined to admit that and may mean if, and endeavours, in each of the examples in which it appears to have this meaning, to find some other explanation, so that the word may seem to retain its ordinary signification. In many passages, of course, the Subjunctive Mood is thus employed, as, for instance, in Macbeth : 'Go not my horse the better, - I must become a borrower of the night;' which might have been expressed with and or an in the manner following:-'I must become a borrower of the night and my horse go not the better.' The meaning is the same in either case, viz. 'I must become a borrower of the night with or on the supposition that my horse go not the better.' 'I will roar you an't (an it) were any nightingale.' -Midsummer Night's Dream. Here an't were, according to Dr. Abbott's theory (which fits very well with this passage), is equivalent to 'and were it.' After 'nightingale' must be supplied, he says, 'he could not roar better.' 'When the Subjunctive' (continues Dr. Abbott), 'falling into disuse, was felt to be too weak to express the hypothesis unaided, and was superseded by and if, an if, and if And had previously' (he says) 'been written an, even in its ordinary sense.' According to Mr. Skeat, however, we are justified in claiming for this word the two separate meanings of 'and' and 'if.' 'The Icelandic enda, and,' he says, 'had acquired the same signification. Thus Shakespeare's an is nothing but a Scandinavian use of the common word and.' I will not go out and it rains I will not go out if it rains. After a time, in order to mark off this use of and from the ordinary use, the final d of and, when it meant if, was allowed to drop, so that we get― I will not go out an it rains. Lastly, when this old force of an came to be forgotten, if was appended to explain it, and we have I will not go out an if it rains. [This seems to explain an if as equivalent to an (i.e. if).] The following are passages which require explanation by reference to the hypothetical use of and : Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, What an if His sorrows have so overwhelmed his wits?' -Titus Andronicus. 'Seize it if thou dar'st. An if I do not, may my hand rot off.' - Richard II. 'But and if that servant say in his heart.'-Luke xii. 45. 'But and if ye suffer for righteousness' sake.'-1 Pet. iii. 14. Here and if means much the same as 'if, if' Probably if was first written by the side of an to explain its meaning. And is sometimes used to introduce a passionate exclamation, a previous sentence, such as, 'Is it true?' or, 'Can it be?' being doubtless implied, e.g.— |