By, a town: Grimsby (Grim's Town), Whitby (the White Town), Tenby (Dane's Town).

Dal, a valley: Scarsdale.

Dan, a Dane: Danby, Danesdale.

=

Ey or ea, island (comp. Faroe Sheep Islands; Stromsce= Stream Island); Orkney, Sheppey, Selsey (Seals' Island), Chelsea. Fell, a rock hill (comp. Norsk fjeld, Dovrefjeld): Scawfell, Snafell, Cross Fell, Goat Fell.

Fisker, fish: Fiskerton.

Force, waterfall (comp. Norsk foss, as in Voring Foss, Mork Foss): Scale force, Low Force, Stock-gill Force.

Ford, forth, firth, an inlet of the sea (comp. Norsk fiord): Firth of Forth, Seaforth, Milford, Waterford.

Garth, enclosure (comp. Norsk gaard): Applegarth, Fishguard. Gate, way: Margate, Sandgate.

Gill, a ravine, a small gravelly stream: Eskgill, Ormesgill. Hag, haigh, haugh, high pasture land: Haggate, Haigh, Kirkhaugh.

Holm, an island (comp. Bornholm in the Baltic): Langholm, Steep Holm (Bristol Channel), Holmforth.

Kell, spring: Kelby.

Kirk, church: Kirkby, Ormskirk, Kirkcudbright (= St. Cuthbert's Church), Kirkwall.

Ness, a headland: Dungeness, Furness, Sheerness.
Scar, scarth, a steep rock: Scarborough, Scarsdale.
Scaw, wood: Scawfell.

Skip, a ship: Skipwith, Skipsea, Skipton, Skiby.
Ster, place: Ulbster.

Suther, sutter, sodor, south: Sutherland, Sutterby, Sodor (in 'Sodor and Man').

Tarn, a mountain lake: Loughrigg-Tarn, Flat-Tarn, Tarn. Thing, ting, ding, a place of meeting: Thingwall, Tingwall, Dingwall. Comp. husting (hus-thing).

Thorpe, thorp, throp, a village: Bishopthorpe, Burnhamthorpe, Milnthrop. Altered to 'drop:' Staindrop. Toft, a small field: Lowestoft.

Vat, lake: Tanvats.

Wig, wick, wich, a small creek or bay: Wigtoft, Greenwich, Norwich, Sandwich, Ipswich, Wick, Berwick (A.S. wic= village). With, wood: Langwith.

2. Names of Persons.-The termination -son is Danish, as Swainson (Sweyn-Sen), Ericson, Anderson. The Anglo-Saxon patronymic is -ing. Compare Slavonic Patrovitch, Petrowski. Ulph or Ulf, found in proper names, is Norse for 'wolf,' e.g. Ethelwulf the noble wolf.

3. Words in Common use

ale

anger

are

bag bait

bloated

curl

flimsy

blunt

dairy

flit

kindle

scold

spoil swain

(a) The Icelandic forms of most of these words are
almost identical.

(6) Previous to the Danish invasions, a respectable litera
ture was forming among the Angles in Northumbria,
and through this literary priority our lan-
guage has taken its name from that people.
(c) The Danish invasions caused a great confusion in
inflections, and consequently phonetic decay, just as
the Norman Conquest did later on.

(d) The Danish element and influence would undoubtedly have been greater, but for the cruel harrying of the North by the Conqueror.

IV. THE LATIN ELEMENT IN MODERN ENGLISH.

The great victory of Aulus Plautius over the Britons took place A.D. 43, and the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain A.D. 410. The last that Britain had to do with the

almost fallen empire of Rome was in A.D. 446, when a letter, styled from its mournful tenour 'The groans of the Britons,' was despatched to Aëtius, the Roman ruler, imploring aid which he was quite unable to afford. The Latin introduced by the Romans themselves has been called Latin of the First Period. The Latin brought by the Church of Rome between the coming over of St. Augustine and the Norman Conquest is called Latin of the Second Period. The Latin introduced through the corrupt form of Norman French is called Latin of the Third Period. The Latin introduced by scholars at or through the revival of learning (latter part of the 15th century) is called Latin of the Fourth Period. To these we must add the contributions introduced through recent advances in Science, Art, and Social and Political Economy.

Latin of the First Period, A.D. 43–446.

During the Roman occupation many words were added to the native language (see Welsh), but only about a dozen survived the Saxon settlement, seven of which are perpetuated in local names connected with great military works, and five are ordinary terms.

Military Terms

(a) Castra (neuter plural) = a camp.

caster, Casterton, Doncaster, Lancaster, Tadcaster. castor, Castor, Thong Castor.

caistor, Caistor.

cester, Bicester, Cirencester, Gloucester, Leicester, Worcester.

chester, Chester, Chichester, Colchester, Manchester, Portchester, Winchester.

cister, Bedcister.

eter, Exeter (Excestre, Exetre, A.S.), Uttoxeter. (b) Colonia = a colony, Lincoln.

(c) Fossa a ditch or trench.

=

Fosbridge, Fosbrook, Fosbury, Fossecot, Fossdyke,
Fossway, Stratton-on-foss.

(d) Ponsa bridge, Pontefract, Pontypool, Pontyprid.

(e) Portus = a port, Portchester, Portgate, Portsea, Ports

mouth.

Strata = paved roads.

strad, Stradbroke, Stadbrooke, Stradsett, Ystrad.
strat, Stratfield, Stratford, Stratton.

stret, Stretford, Stretham, Stretton.
streat, Streatham, Streatley.

street, Street, Streetly, Street-thorpe.

(g) Vallum = a rampart (Anglo-Saxon, weal
Wallbury, Walbury Hill, Wall Hill.

Ordinary Terms

discus (A.S. disc.) = dish.

pirus (A.S. pyrige) = pear.

tegula (A.S. tegol = tile.

millia passuum (A.S. mil) = mile.

=

=

wall),

vallum wall. Corrupted also into 'Old Bailey' and bailiff through the forms ballum, balluira, and bayle.

It is probable that these last five words entered the Saxon through the medium of the British.

Latin of the Second Period, A.D. 596–1066.

For four and a half centuries preceding the Norman Conquest, a multitude of Latin words were incorporated with ‘Our Mother Tongue' through—

A. The connection of the Anglican and Romish Churches. B. The commerce of England with the Mediterranean and other countries; and

C. The translation of Latin books into Anglo-Saxon. These words consisted mainly of ecclesiastical terms, and names of social institutions and natural objects previously unknown to the English. They came direct from Latin or from Greek through the medium of Latin, for Greek was almost unknown in the west before the 'Revival of learning.'

(a) Ecclesiastical Terms

altar (altare)

ark (arca), a chest candle (candela)

chalice (calix), a cup.
A.S. calic

chapter (caput)

cloister (claustrum), a shut place. Latin claudo, I shut. A.S. clustor

(6) Names of Foreign Animals, Trees, Plants, etc.—

Ori- millet (milium)