322 TROOPS FURNISHED BY THE ALLIES -MILITARY DRESS.

The troops of the allies (which, as well as the horse, were called ALE, from their being stationed on the wings, Liv. xxxi. 21. Gell. xvi. 4.) had præfects (PRÆFECTI) appointed them, who commanded in the same manner as the legionary tribunes, Cæs. B. G. i. 39. Suet. Aug. 38. Claud. 35. Plin. Epist. x. 19. They were

divided into cohorts, as the Roman infantry, Sallust. Jug. 58.

A third part of the horse, and a fifth of the foot of the allies, were selected and posted near the consul, under the name of EXTRAORDINARII, and one troop called ABLECTI or Selecti, to serve as his lifeguards, Liv. xxxv. 5. Polyb. vi. 28.

It is probable that the arms and inferior officers of the allied troops were much the same with those of the Romans.

Two legions, with the due number of cavalry (cum justo equitatu), and the allies, formed what was called a consular army (exercitus consularis), about 20,000 men, Liv. x. 25., in the time of Polybius, 18,600, Polyb. vi. 24.*

The consul appointed lieutenant-generals (LEGATI) under him, one or more, according to the importance of the war, Liv. ii. 29. 59. iv. 17. x. 40. 43. &c. Sall. Cat. 59. Jug. 28. Cæs. de Bell. Civ. ii. 17. iii. 55.

When the consul performed any thing in person, he was said to do it by his own conduct and auspices (ductu vel imperio, et auspicio suo), Liv. iii. 1. 17. 42. xli. 17. 28. Plaut. Amph. i. 1. 41. ii. 2. 25. Horat. i. 7. 27.; but if his legatus or any other person did it by his command, it was said to be done, auspicio consulis et ductu legati, by the auspices of the consul and conduct of the legatus. In this manner the emperors were said to do every thing by their auspices, although they remained at Rome, Ductu Germanici, auspiciis Tiberii, Tacit. Annal. ii. 41. Horat. Od. iv. 14. 16. 33. Ovid. Trist. ii. 173., hence auspicia, the conduct, Liv. iii. 60. †

The military robe or cloak of the general was called PALUDAMENTUM, or Chlamys, of a scarlet colour bordered with purple; sometimes worn also by the chief officers, Liv. i. 26. Plin. xvi. 3. Tac. Ann. xii. 56.; cum paludatis ducibus, officers in red coats, Juvenal. vi. 399.; and, according to some, by the lictors who attended the consul in war, Liv. xli. 10. xlv. 39. CHLAMYS was likewise the name of a travelling dress (vestis viatoria): hence Chlamydatus, a traveller or foreigner, Plaut. Pseud. iv. 2. 8. sc. 7. 49.

The military cloak of the officers and soldiers was called SAGUM, also Chlamys, Plaut. Rud. ii. 2. 9., an open robe drawn over the other clothes and fastened with a clasp, Suet. Aug. 26., opposed to toga, the robe of peace. When there was a war in Italy (in tumultu), all the citizens put on the sagum: hence Est in sagis civitas, Cic. Phil. viii. 11., sumere saga, ad saga ire; et redire ad togas, Id. v. 12. xiv. 1., also put for the general's robe; thus, Punico lugubre mutavit sagum, i. e. deposuit coccineam chlamydem Antonius, et accepit nigram, laid aside his purple robe and put on mourning, Horat. Epod. ix. 27.

The proportions were, in Roman troops, 6000 Legionaries of the line, 2400 Velites, and 600 Equites. In social troops, 6700 infantry of the wings, 800 cavalry of the wings, 400 extraordinary cavalry, and 1700 extraordinary infantry.

+ So Suetonius, when enumerating the conquests of Augustus, says, Domuit autem partim ductu, partim auspiciis suis. Aug. 21.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN CAMP.

323

III. DISCIPLINE OF THE ROMANS, THEIR MARCHES AND ENCAMPMENTS.

THE discipline of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their marches and encampments. They never passed a night, even in the longest marches, without pitching a camp, and fortifying it with a rampart and ditch, Liv. xliv. 39. Sallust. Jug. 45. 91. Persons were always sent before to choose and mark out a proper place for that purpose (castra metari): hence called METATORES; thus, Alteris castris vel secundis, is put for altero die, the second day; tertiis castris, quintis castris, &c. Tacit. Hist. iii. 15. iv. 71. Cæs. B. G. vii. 36.

When the army stayed but one night in the same camp, or even two or three nights, it was simply called castra, and in later ages MANSIO; which word is also put for the journey of one day, Plin. xii. 14., or for an inn, Suet. Tit. 10., as oralus among the Greeks.

When an army remained for a considerable time in the same place, it was called Castra STATIVA, a standing camp, ÆSTIVA, a summer camp; and HIBERNA, a winter camp (which was first used in the siege of Veji), Liv. v. 2. Hibernacula ædificavit, Id. xxiii. 39.

The winter quarters of the Romans were strongly fortified, and furnished, particularly under the emperors, with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses (armaria), workshops (fabrica), an infirmary (valetudinarium), &c. Hence from them many towns in Europe are supposed to have had their origin; in England particularly, those whose names end in cester or chester.*

The form of the Roman camp was a square (quadrata), and always of the same figure, Polyb. vi. 25. In later ages, in imitation of the Greeks, they sometimes made it circular, or adapted it to the nature of the ground, Veget. i. 23. It was surrounded with a ditch (Fossa), usually nine feet deep and twelve feet broad, and a rampart (VALLUM), composed of the earth dug from the ditch (AGGER), and sharp stakes (sudes, VALLI vel pali), stuck into it, Virg. G. ii. 25. Cæs. B. Civ. ii. 1. 15. Polyb. xvii. 14, 15. [Distant 200 feet from the nearest tents on every side.]

The camp had four gates, one on each side, called Porta PRÆTORIA, vel Extraordinaria, next the enemy, Liv. xl. 27. DECUMANA, opposite to the former (ab tergo castrorum et hosti aversa, vel ab hoste), Liv. iii. 5. x. 32. Cæs. B. G. ii. 24. Civ. iii. 79. Porta PRINCIPALIS DEXTRA and PRINCIPALIS SINISTRA, Liv. xl. 27.

The camp was divided into two parts, called the upper and lower. The upper part (pars castrorum superior) was that next the porta prætoria, in which was the general's tent (ducis tabernaculum), called PRÆTORIUM, also AUGURALE, Tacit. Annal. ii. 13. xv. 30., from that part of it where he took the auspices (auguraculum, Fest. vel auguratorium, Hygin. de Castramet.) or AUGUSTALE, Quinctil.

The

"In the cities which this people erected during their occupation of Britain, they appear to have pursued the same system which marked their regular camps. remains now existing of one of the most extensive, Silchester, near Basingstoke, in Hampshire, partakes very much of the same nature, both as to the disposal of its walls, ditches, streets, and gates, as the consular, or rather the imperial Camp."Encycl. Metrop. art. Camp.

324

PRÆTORIUM — QUÆSTORIUM

PRINCIPIA.

viii. 2. 8., with a sufficient space around for his retinue, the prætorian cohort, &c. On one side of the Prætorium were the tents of lieutenant-generals, and on the other that of the Quæstor, QUÆSTORIUM, which seems anciently to have been near the porta decumana, hence called Quæstoria, Liv. x. 32. xxxiv. 47. Hard by the quæstor's tent was the FORUM, called also QUINTANA, where things were sold and meetings held, Liv. xli. 2. Suet. Ner. 26. Polyb. vi. 38. In this part of the camp were also the tents of the tribunes, prefects of the allies, the Evocati, Ablecti, and Extraordinarii, both horse and foot. But in what order they were placed does not appear from the classics. We only know that a particular place was assigned both to officers and men, with which they were all perfectly acquainted.

The lower part of the camp was separated from the upper by a broad open space, which extended the whole breadth of the camp, called PRINCIPIA, Liv. vii. 12, where the tribunal of the general was erected, when he either administered justice or harangued the army, Tacit. Annal. i. 67. Hist. iii. 13., where the tribunes held their courts (jura reddebant)*, Liv. xxviii. 24., and punishments were inflicted, Suet. Oth. 1. Aug. 24. Liv. viii. 32. ix. 16., the principal standards of the army, and the altars of the gods stood, Tacit. Annal. i. 39.; also the images of the emperors, Id. iv. 2. xv. 29., by which the soldiers swore, Liv. xxvi. 48. Horat. Od. iv. 5. Ep. ii. 1. 16., and deposited their money at the standards (ad vel apud signa), as in a sacred place, Suet. Dom. 7., each a certain part of his pay, and the half of a donative, which was not restored till the end of the war, Veget. ii. 20.

In the lower part of the camp the troops were disposed in this manner: The cavalry in the middle; on both sides of them the Triarii, Principes, and Hastati; next to them on both sides were the cavalry and foot of the allies, who, it is observable, were always posted in separate places, lest they should form any plots (nequid novæ rei molirentur) by being united. It is not agreed what was the place of the Velites. They are supposed to have occupied the empty space between the ramparts and the tents, which was 200 feet broad. The same may be said of the slaves (CALONES vel servi), and retainers or followers of the camp (LIXE, qui exercitum sequebantur, quæstûs gratia, Festus), Liv. xxiii. 16. These were little used in ancient times. A common soldier was not allowed a slave, but the officers

* A law was introduced by Camillus, during the siege of Veii, that no soldier should be impleaded without the camp, in order that he might always be upon the spot in case of an engagement:

66

Legibus antiquis castrorum, et more Camilli
Servato, miles ne vallum litiget extra

Et procul a signis. Justissima Centurionum

Cognitio est igitur de milite." - Juv. xvi. 15. 18.

The poet then proceeds to remark the superiority which soldiers ("quos arma tegunt et balteus ambit") possess over others in obtaining speedy and expeditious justice:

"Nec res atteritur longo sufflamine litis.". Id. 50.

Sufflamen is a metaphorical expression taken from the drag-chain of a vehicle, to express the dilatory manner in which law-business was transacted: “ lentâ arenû fori,” as he terms it in line 47.

CONTUBERNIUM

- VIE WATCHES.

325

were, Sallust. Jug. 45. The Lixa were sometimes altogether prohibited, ibid. At other times they seem to have stayed without the camp, in what was called PROCESTRIA (ædificia extra castra), Festus; Tacit. Hist. iv. 22.

The tents (tentoria) were covered with leather or skins extended with ropes hence sub pellibus hiemare, Flor. i. 12., durare, Liv. v. 2., haberi, Id. 37. 39., retineri, in tents, or in camp, Tacit. Ann. xiii. 35. So Cic. Acad. iv. 2.

In each tent were usually ten soldiers, with their decanus [corporal] or petty officer who commanded them (qui iis præfuit); which was properly called CONTUBERNIUM, and they Contubernales. Hence young noblemen, under the general's particular care, were said to serve in his tent (contubernio ejus militare), and were called his CONTUBERNALES, Suet. Jul. 42. Cic. Cal. 30. Planc. 21. Sallust.Jug. 64. Hence, Vivere in contubernio alicujus, to live in one's family, Plin. Ep. vii. 24. Contubernalis, a companion, Id. i. 19. x. 3. The centurions and

standard-bearers were posted at the head of their companies.

The different divisions of the troops were separated by intervals, called VIÆ. Of these there were five longwise (in longum), i. e. running from the decuman towards the prætorian side; and three across, one in the lower part of the camp, called Quintana, and two in the upper, namely, the Principia already described, and another between the Prætorium and the Prætorian gate. The rows of tents between the via were called STRIGE (jõμzi).

In pitching the camp, different divisions of the army were appointed to execute different parts of the work, under the inspection of the tribunes or centurions, Juvenal. viii. 147., as they likewise were during the encampment to perform different services (ministeria), to procure water, forage, wood, &c. From these certain persons were exempted (immunes operum militarium, in unum pugnæ laborem reservati, Liv. vii. 7.), either by law or custom, as the Equites, Val. Max. ii. 9. 7., the Evocati and veterans, Tacit. Annal. i. 36., or by the favour (beneficio) of their commander; hence called BENEFICIARII, Festus, Cas. B. C. i. 75. But afterwards this exemption used to be purchased from the centurions, which proved most pernicious to military discipline, Tacit. Annal. i. 17. Hist. i. 46. The soldiers obliged to perform these services were called MUNIFICES, Veget.

ii. 7. 19.

Under the emperors there was a particular officer in each legion who had the charge of the camp, called PRÆFECTUS CASTRORUM, Tacit. Annal. i. 20. xiv. 37. Hist. ii. 29. Veget. ii. 10.

A certain number of maniples was appointed to keep guard at the gates, on the rampart, and in other places of the camp, before the Prætorium, the tents of the Legati, Quæstor, and Tribunes, both by day and by night (agere excubias vel stationes et vigilias), who were changed every three hours, Polyb. vi. 33.

EXCUBIE denotes watches either by day or night; VIGILIE, only by night. Guards placed before the gates were properly called STATIONES, on the ramparts, CUSTODIE, Liv. xxv. 40. xliv. 33. But statio is also put for any post; hence, Vetat Pythagoras injussu imperatoris, id est, Dei, de præsidio et statione vita decedere, Cic. Sen. 20.

326

WATCH-WORD MILITARY INSTRUMENTS.

Whoever deserted his station was punished with death, Suet. Aug. 24.

Every evening before the watches were set (antequam vigilia disponerentur), the watch-word (symbolum) or private signal, by which they might distinguish friends from foes, Dio. xliii. 34., was distributed through the army by means of a square tablet of wood in the form of a die, called TESSERA from its four corners (récapes, -a, quatuor). On it was inscribed whatever word or words the general chose, which he seems to have varied every night, Polyb. vi. 32.

A frequent watch-word of Marius was LAR DEUS; of Sulla, APOLLO DELPHICUS; and of Cæsar, VENUS GENITRIX, &c. Serv. ad Virg. En. vii. 637.; of Brutus, LIBERTAS, Dio. 47. 43. It was given (tessera data est) by the general to the tribunes and præfects of the allies, by them to the centurions, and by them to the soldiers. The person who carried the Tessera from the tribunes to the centurions, was called TESSERARIUS, Tacit. Hist. i. 25.

In this manner also the particular commands of the general were made known to the troops, Liv. vii. 35. ix. 32. xxvii. 46. xxviii. 14. Suet. Galb. 6., which seems likewise sometimes to have been done vivá voce, Liv. xliv. 33.*

Every evening when the general dismissed his chief officers and friends (cùm PRETORIUM dimittebat), after giving them his commands, all the trumpets sounded, Liv. xxi. 54. xxvi. 15. xxx. 5. xxxvii. 5.

Certain persons were every night appointed to to go round (circumire vel obire) the watches; hence called CIRCUITORES, vel Circitores. This seems to have been first done by the equites, Liv. xxii. 1., and tribunes, Id. xxviii. 24., on extraordinary occasions by the legati and general himself, Sallust. Jug. 45. At last particular persons were chosen for that purpose by the tribunes, Veget. iii. 8.

The Romans used only wind-instruments of music in the army. Those were the TUBA, straight like our trumpet; CORNU, the horn, bent almost round; BUCCINA, similar to the horn, commonly used by the watches; LITUUS, the clarion, bent a little at the end, like the augur's staff or lituus; all of brass: whence those who blew them were called ÆNEATORES, Suet. Jul. 32. The Tuba was used as a signal for the foot, the Lituus for the horse, Acron. ad Horat. Od. i. 1. 23., but they are sometimes confounded, Virg. Æn. vi. 167., and both called Concha, because first made of shells, Id. 171.

The signal was given for changing the watches (vigiliis mutandis) with a trumpet or horn (tubá), Lucan. viii. 24. (bucciná), Liv. vii. 35. Tacit. Hist. v. 22., hence ad tertiam buccinam, for vigiliam, Liv.

"About A. U. 585, some new regulations were introduced into the Roman discipline, by the consul, Æmilius Paulus. Instead of giving the word of command aloud at the head of the legions to all the soldiers, Æmilius now ordered the tribune of the nearest legion to give it in a low voice to his primipile, who was to transmit it to the next centurion, until it was conveyed in this manner through the whole of the army. The guards, too, which had hitherto been accustomed to stand from morning till night at their posts, were now relieved at noon; and because they often fell asleep, leaning upon their shields, they were ordered for the future to go upon guard without a shield, Liv. xliv. 33.”. Hooke's R. H. iii. p. 462.