TRIUMPH -ON WHAT OCCASIONS GRANTED.

337

first who triumphed after the expiration of his magistracy (acto honore), was Q. Publilius Philo, Id. viii. 26.

A triumph was decreed by the senate, and sometimes by the people against the will of the senate, Liv. iii. 63. vii. 17., to the general who, in a just war with foreigners (justo et hostili bello, Cic. Dejot. 5.) and in one battle had slain above 5000 enemies of the republic, and by that victory had enlarged the limits of the empire, Val. Max. ii. 8. Whence a triumph was called Justus, which was fairly won, Cic. Pis. 19. Hor. Od. i. 12. 54. And a general was said triumphare, et agere vel deportare triumphum de vel ex aliquo; triumphare aliquem vel aliquid, Virg. Æn. vi. 836. Plin. v. 5. ducere, portare vel agere eum in triumpho.

There was no just triumph for a victory in a civil war, Val. Max. ii. 8.7. Flor. iv. 2. Dio. xlii. 18.; (hence Bella geri placuit nullos habitura triumphos? Lucan. i. 12.); although this was not always observed, Liv. Epit. 115, 116. 133. Plin. Paneg. 2. Dio. xliii. 19.; nor when one had been first defeated, and afterwards only recovered what was lost, Oros. iv.; nor anciently could one enjoy that honour, who was invested with an extraordinary command, as Scipio in Spain, Liv. xxviii. 38. xxxvi. 20.; nor unless he left his province in a state of peace, and brought from thence his army to Rome along with him, to be present at the triumph, Liv. xxvi. 21. xxxi. 49. xxxix. 29. xlv. 39. But these rules were sometimes violated, particularly in the case of Pompey, Val. Max. viii. 15. 8. Dio. xxxvii. 25.

There are instances of a triumph being celebrated without either the authority of the senate, or the order of the people, Liv. x. 37. Oros. v. 4. Cic. Cal. 14. Suet. Tib. 2. Val. Max. v. 4. 6., and aiso when no war was carried on, Liv. xl. 38.

Those who were refused a triumph at Rome by public authority, sometimes celebrated it on the Alban mountain. This was first done by Papirius Naso, A. U. 522, Val. Max. iii. 6. 5., whom several afterwards imitated, Liv. xxvi. 21. xxxiii. 24. xlii. 21. xlv. 38.†

As no person could enter the city while invested with military command, generals, on the day of their triumph, were, by a particular order of the people, freed from that restriction (Ut iis, quo die urbem triumphantes inveherentur, imperium esset), Liv. xlv. 35.

The triumphal procession began from the Campus Martius, and went from thence along the Via Triumphalis, through the Campus and Circus Flaminius to the Porta Triumphalis, and thence through the most public places of the city to the Capitol.

The streets were strewed with flowers, and the altars smoked with incense, Ovid. Trist. iv. 2. 4.

"This was expressly enacted by an old law: in support of which a second was afterwards provided, that made it penal for any of their triumphant commanders to make false returns of the number of slain on the enemy's side or their own; and obliged them to take an oath, upon their entrance into the city, before the quæstors or public treasurers, as to the truth of their statements. In the latter period of the republic these laws, however, had become obsolete, and the honour of a triumph was usually granted, by intrigue or faction, to any general of credit who had gained some little advantage against pirates or fugitives, or repelled the incursions of wild barbarians who bordered on the distant provinces."— Middleton's Life of Cic. ii. 1.

"This appears to have occurred only five times, if we may credit the Fasti Capitolini, in which the names of the generals are recorded."- Anthon.

2

338

DESCRIPTION OF THE TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION.

First went musicians of various kinds, singing and playing triumphal songs; next were led the oxen to be sacrificed, having their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with fillets and garlands; then in carriages were brought the spoils taken from the enemy, statues, pictures, plate, armour, gold and silver, and brass; also golden crowns, and other gifts sent by the allied and tributary states, Liv. xxxiii. 24. xxxvii. 58. xxxix. 5. 7. xl. 43. xlv. 40. Virg. Æn. viii. 720. The titles of the vanquished nations were inscribed on wooden frames (in ferculis), Suet. Jul. 37. Cic. Off. i. 36., and the images or representations of the conquered countries, cities, &c.*, Liv. xxvi. 21. Quinctil. vi. 3. Plin. v. 5. Ovid. Pont. ii. 1. 37. iii. 4. 25. Art. Am. i. 220. Flor. iv. 2. The captive leaders followed in chains, with their children and attendants; after the captives came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers, dressed like satyrs, and wearing crowns of gold: in the midst of whom was a Pantomime, clothed in a female garb, whose business it was, with his looks and gestures, to insult the vanquished.

Next followed a long train of persons carrying perfumes (suffimenta). Then came the general (DUX) dressed in purple embroidered with gold (togâ pictâ et tunicá palmata), with a crown of laurel on his head, Liv. ii. 47. x. 8. Dionys. v. 47. Plin. v. 39. xv. 30., a branch of laurel in his right hand, Plut. in Emil., and in his left an ivory sceptre, with an eagle on the top, Juvenal. x. 43., having his face painted with vermilion, in like manner as the statue of Jupiter on festival days, Plin. xxxiii. 7. s. 36., and a golden ball (aurea bulla) hanging from his neck on his breast, with some amulet in it, or magical preservative against envy, Macrob. Sat. i. 6.; standing in a gilded chariot (stans in curru aurato), adorned with ivory, Ovid. Pont. iii. 4. 35. Juvenal. v. 23. viii. 3., and drawn by four white horses, Ovid. Art. Am. i. 214., at least after the time of Camillus, Liv. v. 23.; sometimes by elephants [as Pompey was], Plin. viii. 2.; attended by his relations, Suet. Tib. 2. Domit. 2. Cic. Muren. 5., and a great crowd of citizens all in white, Juvenal. x. 45. His children used to ride in the chariot along with him, Liv. xlv. 40. Appian. de Punic., and, that he might not be too much elated (ne sibi placeret), a slave, carrying a golden crown sparkling with gems stood behind him, who frequently whispered in his ear, REMEMBER THAT THOU ART A MAN! Plin. xxxiii. 1. s. 4. Juvenal. x. 41. Zonar. ii. Tertull. Apolog. 33. After the general, followed the consuls and senators on foot, at least accord

"Messala first exhibited a picture of his victory over the Carthaginians. L. Scipio and others followed his example, Plin. H. N. xxxv. 4. Painters were in requisition to furnish the necessary ornaments of a triumph. The Athenians sent

Metrodorus to Paulus Æmilius for that purpose, Ibid. c. 11. 184. Models of towns were displayed in the triumph of Scipio Asiaticus over Antiochus, Liv. xxxvii. 59. Mancinus was said to have owed his consulship to the enthusiasm excited among the people by a painting which represented his successful assault on Carthage, Plin. H. N. xxxv. 4. A large class of the symbols employed in the Roman coinage was suggested by conquest; such, for instance, as the designs accompanied by the legends, "allocutio," "expeditio," "trajectus," &c., the figures emblematic of subjugated provinces, and the delineations of triumphal arches and public edifices.”– Professor Anstice's Prize Essay, p. 10. note. Hor. Epist. II. i. 193. "Captivum portatur ebur, captiva Corinthus." Tacitus, Ann. ii. 41., speaking of the triumph of Germanicus. "Vecta spolia, captivi, simulacra montium, fluminum, præliorum."

NAVAL TRIUMPH

OVATIO.

339

ing to the appointment of Augustus; for formerly they used to go before him, Dio. li. 21. His legati and military tribunes commonly rode by his side, Cic. Pis. 25.

The victorious army, horse and foot, came last, all in their order, crowned with laurel, and decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour, singing their own and their general's praises, Liv. [iv. 20.] v. 49. xlv. 38.; but sometimes throwing out railleries against him, Suet. Jul. 49. 51. Dionys. vii. 72. Martial. i. 5. 3., often exclaiming, IO TRIUMPHE, in which all the citizens, as they passed along, joined, Horat. Od. iv. 2. 49. Ovid. Trist. iv. 2. 51. Amor. i. 2. 34.

The general, when he began to turn his chariot from the Forum to the Capitol, ordered the captive kings and leaders of the enemy to be led to prison, and there to be slain, Cic. Verr. v. 30. Liv. xxvi. 13. Dio. xl. 41. xliii. 19.; but not always, Appian. de Bell. Mithrid. 253. Liv. xlv. 41, 42.; and when he reached the Capitol, he used to wait till he heard that these savage orders were executed, Joseph. de Bell. Jud. vii. 24.

Then, after having offered up a prayer of thanksgiving to Jupiter and the other gods for his success, he commanded the victims to be sacrificed, which were always white, Ovid. ibid. from the river Clitumnus, Virg. G. ii. 146., and deposited his golden crown in the lap of Jupiter (in gremio Jovis), Senec. Helv. 10., to whom he dedicated part of the spoils, Plin. xv. 30. xxxv. 40. After which he gave a magnificent entertainment in the Capitol to his friends and the chief men of the city. The consuls were invited, but were afterwards desired not to come (ut venire supersederent), that there might be no one at the feast superior to the triumphant general, Val. Max. ii. 8. 6. After supper he was conducted home by the people with music and a great number of lamps and torches, Dio. xliii. 22. Flor. ii. 2. Cic. Sen. 13., which sometimes also were used in the triumphal procession, Suet. Jul. 37.

The gold and silver were deposited in the treasury, Liv. x. 46., and a certain sum was usually given as a donative to the officers and soldiers, who then were disbanded (exauctorati et dimissi), Liv. xxviii. 9. xxx. 45. xxxvi. 40.-The triumphal procession sometimes took up more than one day; that of Paulus Æmilius three, Plutarch.

When the victory was gained by sea, it was called a NAVAL TRIUMPH; which honour was first granted to Duilius, who defeated the Carthaginian fleet near Lipăræ in the first Punic war, A. U. 493, Liv. Epit. 17., and a pillar erected to him in the Forum, called COLUMNA ROSTRATA, Quinctil. i. 7. Sil. vi. 663., with an inscription, part of which still remains.* [Plin. xxxiv. 11. Virg. G. iii. 29. navali surgentes are columnas.]

When a victory had been gained without difficulty, or the like, Gell. v. 6., an inferior kind of triumph was granted, called OVATIO, in which the general entered the city on foot or on horseback, Dio. liv. 8., crowned with myrtle, not with laurel, Plin. xv. 29. s. 38., and instead of bullocks, sacrificed a sheep (ovem), whence its name, Plut.

* See Burton's Description of the Antiq. of Rome, i. 148.

340 TRIUMPHS UNDER THE EMPERORS-MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.

in Marcell. Dionys. v. 47. viii. 9. Liv. iii. 10. xxvi. 21. xxxi. 20. xxxiii. 28. xli. 28.*

After Augustus, the honour of a triumph was in a manner confined to the emperors themselves, Dio. lxii. 19. 23., and the generals who acted with delegated authority under their auspices only received triumphal ornaments, a kind of honour devised by Augustus, Suet. Aug. 38. Tib. 9. Dio. liv. 24. 31.† Hence L. Vitellius, having taken Terracina by storm, sent a laurel branch in token of it (lauream prosperè gesta rei) to his brother, Tacit. Hist. iii. 77. As the emperors were so great, that they might despise triumphs, Flor. iv. 12. 53., so that honour was thought above the lot of a private person; such therefore usually declined it, although offered to them; as Vinicius, Dio. liii. 26., Agrippa, Id. liv. 11. 24., Plautius, Id. lx. 30. We read, however, of a triumph being granted to Belisarius, the general of Justinian, for his victories in Africa, which he celebrated at Constantinople, and which is the last instance of a triumph recorded in history, Procop. The last triumph celebrated at Rome was by Diocletian and Maximian, 20 Nov. A. D. 303. Eutrop. ix. 27., just before they resigned the empire, Ib. 28.

VII. MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.

THESE were of various kinds, either lighter or more severe.

The lighter punishments, or such as were attended with inconvenience, loss, or disgrace, were chiefly these: 1. Deprivation of pay, either in whole or in part (stipendio privari), Liv. xl. 41., the punishment of those who were often absent from their standards (INFREQUENTES), Plaut. Truc. ii. 1. 19. A soldier punished in this manner was called ERE DIRUTUS, Festus. Whence Cicero facetiously applies this name to a person deprived of his fortune at play, Verr. v. 13., or a bankrupt by any other means, Phil. xiii. 12. - 2. Forfeiture of their spears, CENSIO HASTARIA, Festus. 3. Removal from their tents (locum in quo tenderent mutare), Liv. xxv. 6.; sometimes to remain without the camp and without tents, Liv. x. 4., or at a distance from the winter-quarters, Liv. xxvi. 1. Val. Max. ii. 7. 15.. 4. Not to recline or sit at meals with the rest (cibum stantes capere), Liv. xxiv. 16. 5. To stand before the prætorium in a loose jacket, Suet. Aug. 24. Val. Max. ii. 7. 9., and the centurions without their girdle (discincti), Liv. xxvii. 13., or to dig in that dress, Plut. in Lucull.- 6. To get an allowance of barley instead of wheat (hordeo pasci), Liv. ibid. Suet. Aug. 24. 7. Degradation

"At the termination of the servile war (A. U. C. 682), M. Crassus had the honour of an ovation; for it was thought beneath the dignity of the republic to grant a full triumph for the conquest of slaves. Crassus, however, procured a special decree of the senate, authorising him to wear on the occasion the laurel crown, which was the proper ornament of the triumph, as myrtle was of the ovation. in Crasso. In Pison. 24."- Middleton's Life of Cic. i. 82.

Plut.

"Tac. Ann. i. 55. Decernitur Germanico triumphus (A. U. C. 768), ii. 64. Decrevere patres, ut Germanicus atque Drusus ovantes urbem introirent (Á. U. C. 772). Agric. § 40., triumphalia ornamenta (Agricolæ) decerni jubet: in the notes on the latter passage, Agrippa is said to have been the first who declined a triumph. (See Brotier.)"-T. Among the triumphalia insignia was a statue in the forum decked with laurel, Tac. Ann. iv. 23. xv. 72. Hist. 79.

EXAUCTORATIO -FUSTUARIUM- DECIMATIO.

341

of rank (gradûs dejectio); an exchange into an inferior corps or less. honourable service (militia mutatio), Val. Max. ibid. [Tac. Hist. i. 25.] 8. To be removed from the camp (a castris segregari), and employed in various works, Veget. iii. 4., an imposition of labour (munerum indictio), or dismission with disgrace (ignominiosè mitti), Hirt. de Bell. Afr. 54., vel EXAUCTORATIO, Plin. Ep. vi. 31. A. Gellius mentions a singular punishment, namely, of letting blood (sanguinem mittendi), x. 8. Sometimes a whole legion was deprived of its name, as that called AUGUSTA, Dio. liv. 11,

The more severe punishments were, 1. To be beaten with rods (virgis cædi), or with a vine sapling (vite), Val. Max. ii. 7. 4. Juvenal. viii. 247.- 2. To be scourged and sold as a slave, Liv. Epit. 55.

3. To be beaten to death with sticks, called FUSTUARIUM, the bastinado, Liv. v. 6. Cic. Phil. iii. 6. Polyb. vi. 35., which was the usual punishment of theft, desertion, perjury, &c. When a soldier was to suffer this punishment, the tribune first struck him gently with a staff, on which signal, all the soldiers of the legion fell upon him with sticks and stones, and generally killed him on the spot. If he made his escape, for he might fly, he could not however return to his native country; because no one, not even his relations, durst admit him into their houses, Polyb. ibid. 4. To be overwhelmed with stones (lapidibus cooperiri) and hurdles (sub crate necari), Liv. i. 51. iv. 50.- 5. To be beheaded (securi percuti), Liv. ii. 59. xxviii. 29. Epit. xv., sometimes crucified, Liv. xxx. 43., and to be left unburied, Val. Max. ii. 7. 15.-6. To be stabbed by the swords of the soldiers, Tacit. Annal. i. 44., and, under the emperors, to be exposed to wild beasts, or to be burnt alive, &c.*

Punishments were inflicted by the legionary tribunes and præfects of the allies, with their council; or by the general, from whom there was no appeal, Polyb. vi. 35.

When a number had been guilty of the same crime, as in the case of a mutiny, every tenth man was chosen by lot for punishment, which was called DECIMATIO, Liv. ii. 59. Cic. Cluent. 46. Suet. Aug. 24. Galb. 12. Tacit. Hist. i. 37. Plutarch, in Crass. Dio. xli. 35. xlvii. 42. xlix. 27. 38., or the most culpable were selected, Liv. xxviii. 29. Sometimes only the 20th man was punished, VICESIMATIO; or the 100th, CENTESIMATIO, Capitolin. in Macrin. 12.

VIII. MILITARY PAY AND DISCHARGE.

THE Roman soldiers at first received no pay (stipendium) from the public. Every one served at his own charges.†

According to the Roman laws, soldiers could not be put to the torture, unless they were deserters to the enemy (transfugæ): “ Is qui ad hostes transfugit et rediit, torquebitur, ad bestiasque, vel in furcam damnabitur; quamvis Milites nihil eorum patiantur:" Leg. iii. § 10. D. de Re Militari. Again: "Exauctorati torquentur; nam pro hoste non milite habentur:" Leg. vii. D.

"Oftentimes, when the campaign was too long, the lands, especially those of the poorer plebeians, lay fallow. This occasioned borrowing, exorbitant usury, complaints, and seditions. To prevent these disorders, the senate decreed that, for the future, the infantry should have pay out of the public money, and that, to furnish this expense, a new tax should be raised, from which no citizen whatever should be