characterization, an earnest searching of human motive, and a perception of deeper dramatic values—was possessed by the great poet, Robert Browning (1812-1889), who in turn lacked the very things that made BulwerLytton successful-intrigue, stagecraft, and the secret of immediate appeal to an audience. His first play, Strafford, written at the request of Macready, was produced at Covent Garden May 1, 1837, and won a fair measure of success. The powerful dramatic poem, Pippa Passes (published as No. I of Bells and Pomegranates, 1841), contains sufficient material not only for one but for four plays, and in the searching scene between Ottima and Sebald leaves no doubt of Browning's power when he is working clearly. King Victor and King Charles (No. II of Bells and Pomegranates, 1842) and The Return of the Druses (No. IV in series, 1843) were both considered by Macready unavailable for stage production; but A Blot in the 'Scutcheon (No. V in series, 1843) was written at the request of the actor-manager, with whom unfortunately it led to a misunderstanding. This remarkable production excels others of Browning's plays in the tenseness of its situations, its rapid action, and its brisk dialogue. The central theme that of the problem before an older brother whose young sister has sinned is firmly kept in mind by the dramatist, who here along with his knowl edge of human motive and play of passion shows a stagecraft beyond his wont. At the same time the play is built upon one or two highly questionable situations, so that fundamentally "it violates the tact both of the theatre and of life." 10 While it was given with some measure of success for a few nights, one critic considered it a

10 Dickinson: The Contemporary Drama of England, 23-24.

most

faulty play" and another as a "puzzling and unpleasant business." Next followed Colombe's Birthday (No. VI in Bells and Pomegranates, 1844), which also gave rise to some misunderstandings, this time with Charles Kean, Macready's real successor on the stage, so that it did not see production until it was brought out by Phelps at the Sadler's Wells Theatre in Islington in 1853. This play is in many ways one of Browning's greatest achievements and has an especially strong hero, Valence; at the same time it was not a stage success. A Soul's Tragedy (forming with Luria No. VIII of Bells and Pomegranates, 1846) is simply a psychological study in two acts, and Luria seems to have been written with no thought at all of stage production. Thus one of the most truly dramatic poets that England ever had, witnessed only a slight measure of success in the acted drama, so that his real achievement has given rise to endless discussion and comment.

84. Alfred Tennyson.-Less dramatic than Browning, but by the irony of fate more successful, was the laureate, Tennyson (1809-1892), who with others of the period marks the passing of the romantic tradition. Tennyson was

essentially a lyric poet; nevertheless he was intensely interested in English history, occasionally (as in "Rizpah ") he exhibited dramatic force in his poems, and, aided by the art of Irving and Terry, at least one of his ambitious productions was a noteworthy success. Altogether he wrote seven plays. Queen Mary (printed 1875) was produced by Irving at the Lyceum Theatre in 1876. Harold (published 1876, dated 1877) did not appear on the stage. Becket (formally published 1884) was refused in 1879 by Irving, who in 1891, however, asked leave to produce the play and used it with great success. The Falcon, in

only one act, was produced by Mr. and Mrs. Kendal at the St. James Theatre in December, 1879, and had a run of sixty-seven nights. The Cup, in two acts, was produced by Irving in January, 1881, and ran for a hundred and thirty nights. The Promise of May, in three acts, was produced at the Globe Theatre in November, 1882, and, while severely condemned by the critics, ran for five weeks. The Foresters, in four acts, was given at Daly's Theatre in New York in March, 1892, and with Ada Rehan as Maid Marian was an unqualified success.

In the trilogy of historical plays, as the poet notes in his Memoirs (II, 173), is portrayed the making of England. In Harold is set forth the "great conflict between Danes, Saxons, and Normans for supremacy, the awakening of the English people and clergy from the slumber into which they had for the most part fallen, and the forecast of the greatness of our composite race." In Becket is shown the age-long struggle between the Church and the Crown; in Queen Mary the downfall of Roman Catholicism in England and the dawning of a new age. All three plays awaken many technical questions. Harold in plan seems to be somewhat clearer than the others. The play opens brilliantly with a comet foretelling war, and in the first act lays down three main threads of story: (1) the strife between Harold and Tostig; (2) Harold's determination to go to Normandy in spite of Edward's advice not to do so; and (3) the plotting of Aldwyth, the designing widow of a Welsh king whom Harold has defeated. The fourth act employs the element of suspense in the victory at Stamford Bridge, but is otherwise unfortunate; there is frequent imitation of Shakespeare throughout the play; the characters are strangely self-conscious;

and the last act misses a strong opportunity for action when it has Stigand simply describe to Edith the events of the Battle of Hastings. Queen Mary uses a multitude of characters, and the first act presents at least four threads of action which are to be woven together. The overwhelming prominence of Wyatt's insurrection in the second act, however, and of the matter of Cranmer in the fourth, is not always clear in relation to the main theme; moreover the chief characters seem rather to be acted upon than to act. Becket attempted to combine two things which could not be brought into the same play without a violation of unity-Henry II's political life, in which Becket was prominent, and his romantic and domestic life, in which Rosamund de Clifford was the center of interest. In the opening game of chess, however, it has one of Tennyson's very strongest situations.

The minor plays were on the whole more successful than the trilogy, though by no means always above criticism. The Falcon used a well-known story from Boccaccio. While it was a stage success, the central incident of the cooking of a pet bird is too poignant to be permanently pleasing, and the story seems best adapted not for the drama but for the form that Longfellow has given it in Tales of a Wayside Inn. The Cup was based on a story from Plutarch. The unholy passion of the ex-tetrarch Synorix, and the faithfulness of the matron Camma to her husband Sinnatus, are both strongly set forth, and in various ways the dramatist here shows excellence in technique. The Promise of May, however, was unfortunate in theme. The opinions of the principal man are such as to arouse opposition in almost any English or American audience, and the plan to have this character ruin one sister and

five years afterwards pay court to another, is something of an imposition upon credulity. If we can overlook such things as these, however, we shall find much excellent workmanship. The Foresters, once more placing on the stage the tradition of Robin Hood, and aided by an astute manager and capable performers, fully deserved the success it achieved.

85. Other Mid-century Dramatists.-The middle of the century, however, was on the whole a very uncertain period in the history of the drama. Romanticism was passing, but between tragedy and melodrama, adaptation and farce, hardly any one could tell just whither things were drifting. The chaotic conditions were due most largely perhaps to the Theatre Regulation Act of 1843 legalizing the "illegitimate" playhouses; the old theatres no longer had a monopoly and the newer ones that had come into existence hardly throve under the far-reaching power of the Lord Chamberlain's censorship. A rather crude form of domestic play seemed to suit the popular taste better than anything else, and in general any force to combine all classes in the development of a national drama was lacking.

To the field of the closet drama belong the poetic plays of Richard Hengist Horne (1803-1884). Cosmo de Medici (1837), a tragedy in five acts, has a plot that strangely reminds one of Otway. Two brothers fall into a fatal quarrel. The murderer attempts to conceal the deed which he hardly intended to commit, but is killed by his father, who himself afterwards dies theatrically. The Death of Marlowe (1837), Gregory VII (1840), and Judas Iscariot (1848) all have their marks of power.

With something of the quality of George Lillo, John