diameter of the engaged columns in height, and the latter exactly that proportion. (Fig. 15.) Variously moulded keystones are also used, projecting so that they give an appearance of support to the superimposed entablature. Smaller columns with their entablature are sometimes made to do the duty of imposts, and sometimes single columns are similarly applied; at others, columns in couples are allowed to stand for piers to carry Fig. 15. arches. In plain arcades, the masonry is generally rusticated, without any other projection than a plain blocking course for an impost, and a blocking course or cornice crowning the ordinance. Niches and other recesses are at times introduced in the plain piers, which are in that case considerably wider than usual, or in the spandrels over wide piers. Very considerable variety is allowed in these combinations, which will be best understood by reference to the examples. Doors and windows, whether arched or square, follow nearly the same proportions, being made, in rustic storeys, generally rather less than twice their width in height, and in others either exactly of that proportion, or an eighth or a tenth more. If they have columned or pilastered frontispieces, these are sometimes pedimented; and, except in rustic storeys, whether with or without columns, a plain or moulded lining, called an architrave, is applied to the head and sides of a door or window. This architrave is made from onesixth to one-eighth the width of the opening it bounds, and it rests on a blocking course or other sill, as the case may be. The rule for the form, composition, and application of pediments in Italian architecture, if it may be gathered from the practice of the school, appears to be to set good taste at defiance in them all. We find pediments of every shape, composed of cornices, busts, scrolls, festoons, and what not, and applied in every situation, and even one within another, to the number of three or four, and each of these of different form and various composition. The proportion laid down for the height of a pediment is from one-fourth to onefifth the length of its base, or the cornice on which it is to rest. Balustrades are used in various situations, but their most common application is in attics or as parapets, on the summits of buildings, before windows, in otherwise close continned stereobates, to flank flights of steps, to front terraces, or flank bridges. Their shapes and proportions are even more diversified than their application; that of most frequent use is shaped like an Italian Doric column, compressed to a dwarfish stature, and consequently swollen in the shaft to an inordinate bulk in the lower part, and having its capital, to the hypotrachelium, reversed to form a base to receive its grotesque form. The base and coping cornice of a balustrade are those of an ordinary attic, or of a pedestal whose dado may be pierced into balusters. The general external proportions of an edifice, when they are not determined by single columnar ordinances, appear to be unsettled. There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate and other enrichments of an architectural character in many structures in Italy, but very little ornament enters into the columnar composition of Italian architecture. Friezes, instead of being sculptured, are swollen; the shafts of columns are very seldom fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the extreme; mouldings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often; rustic masonry, ill-formed festoons, and gouty balus trades, for the most part supply the place of chaste and classic ornaments." THE CHINESE STYLE. The ancient Tartars and wandering shepheris : Asia appear to have lived from time immemoria tents, a kind of habitation adapted to their erratic The Chinese have made the tent the elementary fest of their architecture; and of their style any one r. form an idea, by inspecting the figures whet depicted upon erChina ware. CLroofs are concave the upper side, a made of canvass in ster of wood. A Ca portico is not the awnings over shop winde w summer time. The randah, sometimes pied in dwelling-h is a structure of sort. The Chiness ers and pagodas ? concave roofs, like." nings, projecting their several storeys. A representation of the baric style of erection is given in fig. 16. Such tures are built with wood or brick; stone is s employed. Fig. 16. THE SARACENIC, MOORISH, AND BYZANTINE STYLE The Arabs, or Saracens, as they are more pe called, and the Moors, introduced into Spain e forms of architecture which differed considerably t the Grecian in appearance, though founded on s mains in Asia and Africa. The chief pecuaria this architecture was the form of the arch; the cens are understood to have made it of greater than width, thus constituting more than half a c or ellipse, and therefore unphilosophical and com «" tively insecure (fig. 17); while the Moorish style Fig. 17. principaly 1 guished by a in the form horse - shoe, crescent T2: ~ racens and M however, wer much one p that the work each are not pointed out r present day; styles were 2. ornamented flowery trac ar called and the f supporting arches were ge rally slender elegant. Ther. cent-like or ing dome of oriental m was likewise introduced by the Moorish architects & Europe. This bulging, or onion-shaped form of d is common in the church-spires of the Nethera having been brought thither by the Spaniards whe possession of the country. We associate with these styles another, which a~ at Constantinople, called the Byzantine, likewise for on the remains of Grecian art, and partaking slightly eastern character. It became known in weat ern Europe along with the Lombard, another dr*** rate Grecian style, about the ninth and tenth centur The two united received the name of the Lombi Byzantine, and were employed upon the cathedr Worms and Mayence, and several other ecclesiast ructures in Germany. This style is distinguished by mall arches resting on connecting central pillars, like e Saracenic, and sometimes there are rows of such rches one above another. Either pure or mixed, the yzantine style remained in vogue till it was superded by the modern Gothic or German style, about e middle of the thirteenth century. SAXON STYLE. Many centuries before the Gothic or German style ecame known, a peculiar modification of the Grecian, nce entitled the Saxon style, was invented and used in celesiastical edifices, and, as generally believed, led to e discovery of the Gothic. The Saxon style is disnguished by rounded arches over doors and windows, r in the entablature of turrets and walls. Sometimes se arch was composed of semicircles of different idths, swelling from a small to a larger compass, and us affording a convenient entrance to porches in urches. An example is presented in fig. 18. The term Gothic is a modern error, which being now impossible to correct, is suffered to remain as the generally distinguishing appellation of the kind of architecture possessing pointed arches. This style originated in Germany about the middle of the thirteenth century, and was zealously pursued as the leading fashion for ecclesiastical structures all over Europe. Executed by a class of skilled artisans, who wandered from country to country,* the finest specimens of the pointed style are the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Antwerp, and the splendid abbeys of Melrose and Westminster. (Fig. 19.) In this fanciful and picturesque style of architecture, the slender columns, always united in groups, rise to a lofty height, resembling the giants of the grove, in whose dark shade the ancient Teuton used to build his altar. In the obscure depth of the dome, the mind is awakened to solemn devotional feelings. The decoration of the ancient Christian churches is by no means an accidental ornament. They speak a figurative religious * We here allude to the order or craft of Free-Masons, the origin of whose associations may be dated from the ninth or tenth centuries, and who attained their greatest numerical strength and importance at the introduction of the Gothic or pointed style of architecture. Afterwards, the order became a speculative society, unconnected with the practice of architecture, and finally, hunk before the spread of universal intelligence and a common philanthropy which recognises all men as brothers. these edifices, every one must admire the accurate proportions, the bold yet regular construction, the unwearied industry, the grandeur of the bold masses on the exterior, and the severe dignity in the interior. We must therefore ascribe to the German architecture more symbolical than hieroglyphic eloquence and dig. nity. In England, the transition from the Saxon to the pointed style of arch is observed on various old buildings. The accidental intersection of rounded Saxon arches with each other, produces sharp points at the intersections, and this is believed by some to have been the origin of the pointed forms. The crossings of the boughs of trees in an avenue also afford a familiar illustration of the same fact. In the Temple Church the two arches may be found united, and other specimens may be seen in the Church of St Cross near Winchester; and Fountains Abbey, Rivaulx Abbey, and Roche Abbey, in Yorkshire. When the circular arch totally disappeared in 1220, the early English style commenced. The windows of this style were at first very narrow in comparison with their height; they were called lancet-shaped, and were considered very elegant: two or three were frequently seen together, connected by dripstones. In a short time, however, the windows became wider, and divisions and ornaments were introduced. Sometimes the same window was divided into several lights, and frequently finished at the top by a light in the form of a lozenge, circle, trefoil, or other ornament. A specimen of this kind may be seen in the beautiful church of St Saviour's, Southwark, which has lately been thrown open to view by the improvements connected with the erection of the New London Bridge: and another and a very beautiful example in the "Lady Chapel," near London Bridge, on the Surrey side of the Thames. A specimen of the pointed or Gothic doorway is offered in fig. 20. About the year 1300, the architecture became more ornamental, and from this circumstance received the name of the decorated English style, which is considered the most beautiful for ecclesiastical buildings. The windows of this style are very easily distinguished; they are large and wide, and are divided into several lights by mullions, which are upright or perpendicular narrow columns, branching out at the top into tracery of various forms, such as trefoils, circles, and other figures. York Cathedral affords a fine specimen of this sort of architecture, and there is a beautiful window of the same style in the south transept of Chichester Cathedral. The west front of that of Exeter is another specimen, and the doorway of Lincoln Cathedral is in the same style. The transition from the decorated to the florid or perpendicular style was very gradual. Ornament after ornament was added, till simplicity disappeared beneath the extravagant additions; and about the year 1380, the architecture became so overloaded and profuse, that it obtained the title of florid, which by some persons is called the perpendicular, because the lines of division run in upright or perpendicular lines from top to bottom, which is not the case in any other style. King's College Chapel, Cambridge, begun in the reign of Henry VI., though not finished till some time after; Gloucester Cathedral; Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster; St George's Chapel at Windsor; Wrexham Church, Denbighshire; and the chapel on the bridge at Wakefield, Yorkshire-are all of this character. Many small country churches are built in this style; and their size not admitting of much ornament, they are distinguished from structures of a later date by mouldings running round their arches, and generally by a square head over the obtuse-pointed arch of the door. A peculiar ornament of this style is a flower of four leaves, called, from the family reigning at that period, the Tudor flower. Definitions of Parts. Gothic architecture being for the most part displayed in ecclesiastical edifices, it may be of service to explain the usual plan and construction of these buildings. A church or cathedral is commonly built in the form of a cross, having a tower, lantern, or spire, erected over the place of intersection. The part of the cross situated towards the west is called the nare. The opposite or eastern part is called the choir, and within this is the chancel. The transverse portion, forming the arms of the cross, is called the transept, one limb being called the northern, and the other the southern transept. Generally, the nave is larger than the choir. If the nave, choir, and transepts be all of the same dimensions, the form is that of a Greek cross. When the nave is longer than the other parts, forming a cross of an ordinary shape, the edifice is said to be in the form of a Latin cross. The different open parts usually receive the name of ailes or aisles, from a word signifying a wing: the nave or largest open space is called the main aisle. Originally, the floors of all such edifices were open and unencumbered with fixed pews or seats, and as the floors were ordinarily of mosaic or tessellated pavement,* the effect was exceedingly grand. *Mosaic, or more properly Musaic (from the Latin opus Musivum), was of Roman origin. It consisted of pavement formed of pieces of marble of different colours, arranged in a tasteful maner, and was very costly. The walls of Gothic churches, on which the ot strain of the roof arches ultimately rests, require t Fig. 22. of great strength; and imparting this necessary degree of resistance va out clumsiness is the of this style of architerun The plan adopted is to ent exterior buttresses (fig. These rise by gradati from a broad basis to m row pointed pinnade, placed opposite the p of pressure, secure, out the slightest appear ance of clumsiness, the p neral stability of the be ing. Slanting braces, whd spring from the buttress to the upper part of to roof, are called fis tresses; such, however, not always required in the modern edifices in vt the roof is of wood and la The summit or op edge of a wall, if strat is called a parapet; if indented, a battlement. God: windows were commonly crowned with an acute arri they were long and narrow, or if wide, were div into perpendicular lights by mullions. The lateral sparn on the upper and outer side of the arch are called pr drelles; and the ornaments in the top, collecti taken, are the tracery. An oriel, or bay windor, a window which projects from the general surface of the wall. A wheel, or rose window, is large and circular. A corbel is a bracket or short projection fr a wall, serving to sustain a statue ur th springing of an arch. The Gothic term indicates the erect end of a roof, and ans to the Grecian pediment, but is more arde The polished taste of the architects ployed in constructing Gothic edifices, led t numerous devices in the form of the pars Sometimes the column was single, round, s massive; at other times it was composed seemingly a cluster of smaller pillars, an this had always the lightest effect; but ora sionally the column was given the app ance of two shafts twisted, as representi in fig. 23, or of a single shaft with a festof flowers twined spirally around it. In the collegiate church at Roslin, there are Fig 23. highly ornamented pillars of this kind. The Gothic style of building is more imposing s Tudor, or early English, into an irregular, certainly, but in most instances an exceedingly rich and effective composition." This was traceable to the influence of the Italian architects in England, whose "fame was a subject of deep interest in this country, where the rage for building was no less strong and general than in Italy. In the brilliant reign of Elizabeth, the Eng more difficult to execute than the Grecian. This is because the weight of its vaults and roofs is upheld at a great height by supporters acting at single points, and apparently but barely sufficient to effect their object. Great mechanical skill is necessary in balancing and sustaining the pressures; and architects at the present day, hampered by principles of economy, find it difficult to accomplish what was achieved by the build-lish nobles and princely proprietors vied more than ers of the middle ages. NORMAN, TUDOR, AND MODERN GOTHIC. Throughout England may be seen many aged castles, some still in a state of good preservation, but the greater number in ruins, and occupying, with their picturesque remains, the summit of a rising ground or rocky precipice. These castles are of a style which prevailed during the feudal ages in Europe, and was brought to this country by the Normans, who erected them as fastnesses into which they might retire and oppress the country at pleasure. The same kind of buildings are seen in Scotland, where the barons ruled with the same feudal power as in the southern parts of he island. ever with each other in the magnificence of their mansions. It might have been supposed that the noble Tudor houses, with their panelled walls, buttresses, and battlements, traceried windows, sculptured dripstones, florid pinnacles, and embossed chimney-shafts, were sufficiently rich and gorgeous to satisfy the prevailing taste for splendour; but in their anxiety to strike and surprise the admiration of their countrymen, many deserted the native styles, and sought for designs, and even artists, from abroad. Italian architecture became, by degrees, the mode; and even where the indigenous style was adhered to in the general design, many of the enrichments and ornamental features were borrowed from the Italian. First of all, the porch or gateway, as the most conspicuous points on which to exhibit The feudal castles in England, like those on the these exotic novelties, were decorated on each side of the Rhine, consisted for the most part of a single strong entrance, and, perhaps, a second or third storey above, ower or keep, the walls of which were from six to ten with pilasters belonging to the different Greek orders; eet thick, and the windows only holes of one or two the doorway itself exchanged the low-pointed or Tudor eet square, placed at irregular intervals. The several for the circular arch; the deep, elegant, and sweeping loors were built on arches, and the roof was flat or Gothic mouldings for the Vitruvian architecture, cut Jattlemented, with notches in the parapet, from which across by the awkward projecting imposts. Next was he inhabitants or retainers of the chieftain might de- introduced the cupola, whose invention in Italy had end themselves with instruments of war. The accom-made so much noise, that it appears our country squires nodations for living were generally mean, and what were anxious to have miniature specimens of it at home. would now be called uncomfortable. Around or in front It was applied as a covering to the high turrets, round, of the main tower there was usually a court-yard, square, or polygonal, which flanked the entrance or rotected by a high wall, and the arched entrance was terminated the angles of the building, and, surmounted arefully secured by a falling gate or portcullis. Out- with gilded vanes, certainly produced a rich and imide, there was in many cases a regular wet ditch or posing effect. Then followed the removal of the panelled Cosse. Castles of greater magnitude consisted of two battlements, and the substitution of a parapet, carved or more towers and inner buildings, including a chapel into fantastic notches or scrolls, or perforated with oval and offices for domestics, and horses and other animals. openings, and ornamented with obelisks, balls, busts, Some of them were ou a great scale, and possessed con- statues, and other singular decorations. These ran up siderable grandeur of design. the gables, which were often twisted into strange shapes, As society advanced, and civil tranquillity was esta- and sometimes wholly replaced by the level balustrade; blished, these military strengths gradually assumed a and thus the most characteristic features of the old character of greater elegance and less the appearance style-its numerous steep gables and spiry pinnacles of defence. The wet ditch disappeared, and was super-were succeeded by the uniform horizontal straight seded by a lawn or shrubbery. Instead of the draw- lines of the new. At length the whole building was bridge and portcullis, there was a regular approach surrounded by columns or pilasters, rising tier above and gate of ordinary construction. The windows be- tier, to the exhaustion sometimes of the five orders; came larger, and were fitted with glass frames, and open arcades took the place of the entrance porch; and stone was abandoned for the greater comfort of wooden nothing remained of the Tudor style but the mullioned floors. Instead, also, of a bare region around, in which window, which, however, was of itself sufficient to give no foe might lurk, gardens were established, and a a peculiarly picturesque and old-fashioned aspect to long avenue of trees led to the front of the modernised the whole building." mansion. In some instances, the pepper-box turrets at the upper corners of the buildings remained. Of the class of structures that sprung up in this period of transition, which we may refer in England to the hfteenth and sixteenth, and in Scotland to the seventeenth centuries, there are several highly interesting remains. These edifices of the nobility and gentry were no longer called castles: they took the name of halls, and such had attained so great a pitch of magnificence in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, as to have subsequently given a name to a new style-the Tudor or Elizabethan. Latterly, and with no very distinct reference to any particular period, this remarkable fashion of building has been pretty generally called the old English style of architecture. One of the best existing specimens of the Tudor era of architecture is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the property of the Duke of Rutland. A writer in the "Quarterly Review," speaking of this species of architecture, takes occasion to notice that "in a few of the houses built during the reign of Henry VIII., we may observe some slight traces of the Italian architecture, which in the next reign was more Liberally introduced, and mixed up with the original "It has always appeared to us," continues our authority, "that this architecture of the Elizabethan age constitutes a style of its own—a compound of two extremely different modes, the Italian and the Tudor Gothic. It is evident that the Italian design was always greatly altered to suit the climate and the taste of England. Indeed, were we not afraid that the comparison might be considered profane, we should say there is something in the rich irregularity of the Elizabethan architecture, its imposing dignity, gorgeous magnificence, and quaint and occasionally fantastic decoration, reminding us of the glorious visions that flitted across the imagination of Shakspeare, the immortal bard of the same age. He, like the architects of his day, borrowed largely from the foreigner, but made his importations appear exclusively his own. The architectural garden, which always accompanied this style of mansion, is not the least pleasing part of it. We delight in its wide and level terraces, decorated with rich stone balustrades, and these again with vases and statues, and connected by broad flights of stone steps-its clipped evergreen hedges-its embowered alleys-its formal yet intricate parterres, full of curious knots of flowers-its lively and musical fountains-its steep In erecting ornamental cottages of this kind, ther ought to be a lightness in the pointing of the uppe projecting windows, with a sharp angularity in th roof; and the chimney-stacks ought to stand wed o in order to create effect in different points of vie When the little gardens adjacent are well trimmed and porch or mullioned window, the prospect exhibited slopes of velvet turf-its trim bowling-green-and the labyrinth and wildness which form its appropriate termination, and connect it with the ruder scenery without. This kind of ornamental garden came from Italy, with the change we have been discussing in domestic architecture. The quadrangular embattled mansion of the last Hen-blooming, and the woodbine and ivy trained round th ries affords scope for the display of much grandeur and magnificence, and adapts itself more conveniently to the plan of a modern house. The carved oriel, and deep many-lighted bay window, often projecting in a multitude of capricious angles and curves, besides the regular octagon, the panelled angled-turrets, with richly embossed finials, and the wreathed chimney-shafts, are characteristic beauties of this class of building. The gabled manor-house, together with these ornamental features, admits at the same time of a much greater irregularity of form and outline, so as to accommodate itself to every variety of disposition, and to buildings of every size, from the baronial residence to the parsonage and grange. All the forms which particularly mark the Elizabethan style, may be wrought in the cheapest materials with comparatively little labour; and a small portion of ornamental work, tastefully disposed, is capable of producing very considerable effect. Lastly, the Elizabethan house is distinguished by the number and size of its rectangular and many-mullioned windows, which gave a peculiar lightness and elegance to its several parts. The roof-line may be either horizontal or broken with gables, turrets, and cupolas. In either case, it is enriched with perforated parapets, balustrades, or other architectural devices, while similar embellishments ornament the entrance, and the terraces which connect the building with the garden." Fortunately, this light and elegant style of domestic architecture is gradually superseding the bald GræcoItalian style of the eighteenth century. A better taste is evidently extending itself, particularly as regards the erection of villas, cottages, hunting-seats, gatelodges, and other rural residences. To these the old English style is peculiarly well adapted. The leading feature of this style applied to cottages is the dispensing with unbroken lines. The house is composed of different parts, projecting at right angles from each other, with also a projecting porch, and the outshot octagonal windows commanding views in three different directions. It also sometimes exhibits an open rustic arcade along a portion of the front or back, which will be found useful and agreeable both in sultry and cold broken weather. It is not uncommon for a cottage of this kind to have on the ground-floor two parlours, communicating by folding-doors, fourteen feet by twelve each, and ten feet in height; a kitchen and Improvement is also shown in the style of chu building, particularly in the northern part of the Un Kingdom, where there was most room for it. S the Reformation, churches have been built in Scotland with very little regard to elegance; and in the century particularly, there flourished a style, the p ducts of which are scarcely to be distinguished fr barns and granaries. Within the last twenty yea very few such structures have been erected with an effort being made to unite some degree of taste a regard for conveniency. A modest Gothic style b become very prevalent, which, though not always f of faults, is a surprising advance upon the he edifices of the last century. scullery, with a porch seven feet by five feet six inches, opening to a staircase seventeen feet six inches by eight feet, with three rooms above. The gables are enriched with pendants and ornamental dressings to the doorways and windows, and handsome octagonal chimneystacks. We offer a representation of a cottage in this Ant style in fig. 21. Fig. 25. In fig. 25, a representation is given of one of the improved ecclesiastical structures, suitable for a r scene, or any other situation in which economy means requires to be consulted. In general, these h some Gothic churches are calculated to accomma from a thousand to twelve or fourteen hundred s are neatly fitted up with pews and galleries, and from three to four thousand pounds. MODERN BRITISH ARCHITECTURE. During the sixteenth century, as has been mention an extraordinary effort was made in Italy to re the purity of Grecian architecture; and in this a Palladio was followed by the not less eminent Minhan Angelo Buonarotti, who, at an advanced age, is lith undertook the continuation of the building of St Pe at Rome, a work on which the greatest splendours of Italian style are lavished. Into England, the taste for the Grecian was introduced at the beg of the seventeenth century by Inigo Jones, 50 contemptuous observations on the German p |