who had served with credit as an English officer in the wars against the French in the West. Boston was evacuated by the British March 17, 1776, and July 4th of the same year Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Reverses now befell the Colonial armies. New York was lost to them, and this serious blow was hardly offset by the victories of Princeton and Trenton. Philadelphia was abandoned in 1777, the most important Colonial victory of that year being the one gained by General Gates at Saratoga, where he captured General Burgoyne and his army. Very serious was the drain upon the population and resources of the Revolutionary Government at this time, and during the winter of 1777-78, which the American army passed in camp at Valley Forge, the fortunes of the young nation seemed at a very low ebb. While the army was suffering from cold and short rations during this season, the American diplomat Benjamin Franklin was at the court of France, successfully conducting negotiations which led to the establishment of a defensive and offensive alliance between that country and the Americans. French money and men proved a timely aid, though for two years the colonists made no great headway. In 1781 the campaign in the South was conducted with such vigor that the British forces there were cooped up in Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston, South Carolina. Successes further north followed, and the surrender of General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, proved the ruin of the British cause in America, and the practical termination of the war. In the following year negotiations for peace were begun, and a

and those opposed to it as Anti-Federalists, the latter party assuming the name Republican subsequent to the Constitution's adoption. The presidential elections following those of Washington, in which patriotic sentiment was allowed to overcome party feeling, were purely partisan; and while the Federalists succeeded in placing John Adams in the presidential chair as Washington's successor, the Republicans elected Jefferson, Madison and Monroe, each for two terms of office. With the exception of wars with the Indians, who disputed the advance into their territories caused by the rapid growth of the population, the country was at peace during the years subsequent to Washington's inauguration. In 1812, however, differences arose with Great Britain, then at war with France, the most serious of which was her persistence in asserting the right of searching American vessels and removing from them sailors who she claimed were of British birth, but who really, in a vast majority of cases, were American citizens, of whom not less than 6,000 were so impressed in the year 1811. The war was conducted with varying success in different parts of the continent. In the operations against Canada, General William Henry Harrison won a glorious victory near Detroit, defeating a British army with which was allied a powerful force of In

treaty acknowledging the independence of the United States was signed September 3, 1783.

It had been felt all through the war that the articles of confederation under which the different colonies co-operated were altogether inadequate to the conduct of the young nation's affairs, and the revision of the form of government was one of the earliest matters to receive the attention of its leaders. A convention was called at Annapolis in 1787, which framed the Constitution of the United States, which was duly ratified by the States and has remained, with the addition of sundry amendments, the embodiment of the principles of government in this country ever since. In 1787 General George Washington was elected first President of the United States, and a second term of office was accorded him in 1791, at the end of which he declined to again accept the office, thus establishing the no-third-term precedent, violation of which has not since been permitted by the American people. Early in the political history of the country party lines began to be sharply drawn, the adoption of the Constitution causing the first clearly defined difference of opinion, when those favoring it became known as Federalists

dians under the famous leader Tecumseh, who was slain. General Scott secured successes at Lundy's Lane and Chippewa; while Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, and Commodore McDonough, on Lake Champlain, swept those waters of British war vessels and greatly enhanced the importance of the military victories. In

the South, General Jackson defeated the British at the memorable battle of New. Orleans. The principal reverses sustained during the war were the capture of General Hull and his army at Detroit, and of General Winchester and the defeat of the Americans at Bladensburgh, which opened the way to the British occupation of Washington. The war, which came to an end December 24, 1814, was strongly opposed by the Federalists, and led to the overthrow of the Republican party. While it was in progress an uprising of the Creek Indians in Alabama caused considerable trouble, but they were conquered by General Jackson. Further troubles with Indians occurred in 1832, when the Sacs and Foxes, tribes living in the Northwest, had to be quelled in what is known as the Black Hawk war, and in 1835, when Osceola, a crafty leader of the Seminole tribe, of Florida, began a war which lasted for four years before they were brought under subjection. All of these troublesome savages were removed to lands reserved for them, and known then and since as the Indian Territory.

Although no foreign war occupied the public mind for thirty years from the close of that of 1812, important events

garrison to surrender.

Both sides to the impending conflict armed with haste, and the first serious clash of arms occurred at Bull Run, where the Federal forces became panic-stricken and suffered defeat. The Confederates gained but a slight advantage and were driven back. In the West, where the Confederates had closed up the Mississippi River, the Federals captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and overran the State of Tennessee. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. With varying fortunes the war progressed until July 4th of that year, when Vicksburg fell

by General Grant in command of a line between thirty and forty miles in length. The fall of Richmond and Petersburg, April 2 and 3, 1865, brought the end near, and a week later General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court-house. The war, in the conduct of which nearly 1,800,000 Union soldiers had been enlisted, and a debt of $2,000,000,000 incurred, called for special financial legislation. In 1862, and on subsequent occasions, were issued legal tender notes of the United States, and interest-bearing bonds of various kinds. A national bank system, which survives, was established. Customs duties

were raised to an average of nearly 50 per cent, and a direct tax and a large variety of internal revenue duties were im

COL. W. A. ROEBLING.
BUILDER OF THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE.

posed. These impositions provided for the annual expenditures of the Government, which were increased from $60,000,000 in 1860 to $1,217,000,000 in 1865.

April 14, 1865, a few weeks after his inauguration for the second term, President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by J. Wilkes Booth, who was hunted down and killed a few days later, four of his accomplices being convicted and executed. Vice-President Johnson became President, and the work of political reconstruction was begun. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery within the United States and places subject to their jurisdiction, was duly ratified and proclaimed. In April, 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights bill over the President's veto, thus ensuring protection to the freed slaves, and giving to the Federal courts enlarged jurisdiction in the matter. June was passed the Fourteenth Amendment, whereby equal civil rights were guaranteed to

In

tional invasion of his rights, and defied it, which led to his impeachment and trial by the Senate, who acquitted him, the two-thirds vote necessary for a conviction not being secured. Just before his retirement, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, which provides that the rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude.

At the next presidential election General U. S. Grant received the nomination of the Republican party and was elected. Representation in Congress was restored to such States as had not regained it since reconstruction commenced. In 1869 the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads were completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by rail.

The claims of the United States against the British Government for the depredations of the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers built by the English were referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in December, 1871, and awarded the United States the sum of $15,500,ooo damages, this being the first occasion in the world's history in which an international difficulty of such gravity had been disposed of in so peaceful a manner.

During General Grant's second term, which began in 1873, the Indians gave trouble. The Apaches, in Arizona, were subdued by General Crook. In 1873, General E. R. S. Canby and some other officers were treacherously massacred by the

all, irrespective of race or color. By this time the breach between President Johnson and the Republican party was complete, and the antagonism grew until in March, 1867, the Republican Congress passed, over the President's veto, the tenure of office act, intended to contract the executive's power to remove officials. Mr. Johnson deemed the act an unconstitu

Modocs, who were destroyed after a hard struggle. In 1876, the Sioux, in Montana, under Sitting Bull, rebelled against United States authority and were attacked by General George A. Custer, who, with his immediate command, was surrounded and slain, other companies of the cavalry regiment under him being rescued by General Terry.

In 1876 the convention of the Republican party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, while Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, was put forward by the Democrats. The ensuing election was extremely close, Mr. Tilden receiving a majority of the popular vote, and the returns also giving him a majority of the Electoral College. The returns from Florida and Louisiana were disputed, however, on the ground of fraud. Congress was unable to reach a decision, and an Electoral Commission was appointed. Under its decision, by a vote of 8 to 7, Mr. Hayes became President, the commission allotting him 185 of the electoral votes, one more than the number allotted Mr. Tilden. During the administration of President Hayes a great cause of irritation throughout the South was removed by his aversion to the use of the military power of the United States in controlling State governments. The decline of values in all parts of the country, however, as the time for resumption of specie payments approached, caused great distress. Wages were lowered, and thousands thrown out of employ

ment.

In the summer of 1877 a great strike of men engaged by the railroad companies stopped, for a time, all transportation of passengers and freight on many roads, and filled the country with alarm. Riots occurred at Reading, Scranton, Pittsburg, Chicago and St. Louis. At Pittsburg property to the amount of several millions of dollars was destroyed. During 1878 and 1879 the lower Mississippi valley was ravaged by yellow fever, and great numbers perished with the dread disease in New Orleans, Vicksburg, Memphis, and smaller places, although the Howard Association, as well as sisterhoods and clergymen, nobly devoted themselves to the care and relief of the sick. A majority of Congress, during Hayes' administration, was elected by the Democrats, and many cases of disagreement occurred between the legislative body and the executive, several bills being vetoed by the President, who, in 1879, called an extra session to pass the annual appropriation bills. One of the bills vetoed by the President was that to prevent the further immigration of natives of China. During the excitement on this subject in California, many acts of violence were perpetrated, and many Chinese left the State and became scattered through the country. A new treaty with China at last removed some of the difficulties.

In 1880 the Republicans nominated and elected General James A. Garfield, his opponent for the Presidency being General Winfield S. Hancock. A strong effort had previously been made in the Republican party to nominate General Grant, who had made a tour of the world, and been received with great distinction in Europe. The election of 1880 was a close one, the vote of New York, which had for years been Democratic, deciding the contest in favor of the Republican candidate. The elections for Congress also showed a reaction in favor of the Republicans. The nomination of Garfield, however, had caused a split in the ranks of the Republican party, the supporters of the third term aspirations of General Grant, commonly known as "Stalwarts," feeling deeply their failure to nominate him. This opposition to the President reappeared after he had begun his administration, and an open rupture between him and the Stalwart leaders followed. While this was at its height, a political fanatic, named

Charles Jules Guiteau, conceived the idea that he would restore unity to the party by removing the President, thus throwing the administration into the hands of Vice-President Arthur, who was a Stalwart, and had received the nomination as a concession to that faction. July 2, 1881, Guiteau lay in wait for the Presi dent at the railway station at Washington, and shot him as he was on the point of departing from the city upon a vacation. The wounded President died September 19, at Long Branch, N. J., and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. The assassin Guiteau was tried, convicted and sentenced to be hanged, the execution taking place in the jail building at Washington. Since Mr. Arthur's accession to power the Democrats, in the general elections of 1882, came to the front and carried so many of the Congressional districts as to secure them a large majority in the Forty-eighth Congress, which assembled in December, 1883. Interest in the final session of that Congress settled largely upon their action in regard to the tariff, a modification of which was very evidently looked for by the people. In 1884 an unsuccessful attempt was made to re-adjust the tariff, with view to reducing the surplus in the treasury and securing a more equitable distribution of taxation. The defeat of the measure was largely due to the Democratic majority in the House, who desired to enter the Presidential campaign unfettered by promises. Two unsuccessful treaties were negotiated during the same period. The first, with Mexico, was approved by the Senate, but failed to go into effect because of the refusal of the House to provide the legislative measures necessary to secure its operation. The other treaty, with Spain, was killed in its early stages. Negotiations for a new extradition treaty with Great Britain and her colonies were also begun.

The Presidential campaign of 1884 was bitter and aggressive. James G. Blaine, of Maine, the Republican candidate, was defeated by Grover Cleveland, of New York, the nominee of the Democratic party, who received the support of many dissatisfied Republicans; and in 1885, for the first time in twentyfour years, a Democrat was installed in the White House. President Cleveland took the helm of state with the motto of "Reform," and the conservative spirit displayed in his administration of the office of chief magistrate of the republic has made it satisfactory to all classes.

The foreign relations of the country have been peaceful for. several years past, with the exception of a slight stringency existing in the diplomatic relations with Great Britain on account of the discovery of the fact that the plotters who are seeking by the employment of dynamite to frighten England into granting concessions to Ireland, have made the United States the base of their operations.

The country was never in a more prosperous and healthy condition generally than at present. The statistical department of this work speaks volumes for the growth and rank of the Union in all those things which make a nation great.