the sum of all our knowledge is always only a finite part of that infinite knowledge and wisdom, by which all things are. Considering this, it must be confessed that whatever part of knowledge any one possesses, provided it be true and deserve the name of knowledge, it is of exactly the same importance and of equal advantage to him, as that which another possesses, though it be a million times as much. The same will hold good with respect to feeling and taste, which are likewise developed by instruction. The only care which must be taken is this, that however much or little knowledge may be obtained by education, it ought to be true, and founded on the rational faculties of the mind-not, as cheap instruction ill directed is likely to be, merely learned by rote (as parrots and monkeys learn), and often a mass of errors and senseless jargon.

That those of the poorer classes, in whom instruction calls forth a taste and predilection for science or art, are for that reason naturally not satisfied with mechanical labour-which is necessarily the portion of the class to which they belong— and that yet, on account of their poverty, they cannot avoid those occupations to which they must feel some aversion and be ill-fitted, can be no objection to instruction being extended to them; for, if it be realized to the extent proposed here, it will enable them to pursue those sciences or arts, for which they have talents and inclination. Others, who never felt a decided wish for cultivating their mental faculties, and they are by far the greater number, can have no aversion to labour, because they have been instructed in certain useful things; for bodily work itself is pleasant to any one not accustomed to idleness, even to the scholar; and besides, there are trades and occupations which continually call the faculties of the mind into activity. It is not bodily labour itself to which those people will be averse, but their being by it deprived of most things in which their mental faculties might be engaged. The number of well-instructed men is likely to increase through general education; and it might be considered a doubtful question where and how all of them are to find situations and proper employment. Without entering into particulars, it will be sufficient to observe that every reasonable person must allow, that there cannot be too many really well-instructed people in a nation; any State must gain by

their number.

Now, since instruction will remove crime, as has been shown before, since it will increase the number of useful men in a nation, would it not be desirable to push it to as high a degree as possible, instead of suppressing it altogether?

A look into actual life will still more persuade us to this conclusion. We find that instruction, instead of enabling persons to commit crimes, only convinces them more effectually of the impossibility of obtaining any lasting advantages through wrong actions; at least, no advantages to be compared with those which may be derived from an honest, sober, and industrious life. A list of culprits, and the short notices of their former life and character, show that the greater number of them are persons of the greatest ignorance; a very small part are persons who show abilities, which, if fostered by a liberal education, might have raised them to an honourable and highly respectable station in life, but whose education has been very deficient and greatly neglected. In popular commotions the leaders are often or mostly able but uninstructed men. What talents and abilities the first French Revolution brought to light from the lowest classes! Yet most of the horrible crimes, and of the enormous excesses in the wars during that time, were committed by persons of great natural abilities, but without education.

From all that has been said, the utility of general instruction cannot be denied by any one who is free from prejudice and self-interested feelings. He who wishes either himself, or the class of people to which he belongs, to derive advantages from the miserable state of those below him, certainly has to fear general instruction as the strongest obstacle to his wishes. For as knowledge extends itself confidence grows together with the number and variety of ways by which life may be supported. Go to any country where ignorance prevails, and there poverty and misery will be found inseparably joined to it. It is one of the chief evils produced by want of instruction in those of ordinary abilities, that all their most noble faculties being left without any object to which they may be directed, and on which they might have been exercised and developed, a character of indolence and want of energy arises from the total stagnation of their mental faculties. This applies to the greater number of the poor; and their forlorn and desperate situation will, in all probability, be removed only by education. Let any one observe the inhabitants of a country where education is generally diffused (and for this most parts of Germany will afford a striking example), and if there is not affluence, he will find industry; if there is poverty, he will find contentment to be the chief feature of its poorer inhabitants. Such is mostly the state of the lower classes in the above-mentioned country; although it is well known that the people have been hard pressed by the various expenditures and the misrule of their

many masters, and are now, and have long been, suffering under one of the worst systems of internal and foreign trade. And there has been no popular voice to be raised against gross abuses; and none but arbitrary means have been employed to prevent or abolish them.

Besides the advantages which every individual may derive from instruction, there is another, more important than these. A whole suffering class of society will, by the general diffusion of knowledge, see their common interests, and feel themselves united in one whole, or integral part of the nation, and thus they will be enabled, by the immense strength arising from their union, to obtain redress of their grievances by prudent, sober, and legal means. No blind despair or infatuated rage will urge the labourer to act directly against his own interest by burning the ricks and poisoning the cattle, or breaking the machinery of the rich farmer. The poorest labourer will have too much sense to follow the mischievous advice of designing persons, and to destroy his last source of support, while at the same time he commits himself to the hands of unrelenting justice.

If general instruction be of so much consequence to the welfare of the whole state (for with one member all the rest suffer), government, whose chief duty it is to watch over that welfare and constantly increase it, ought certainly to take the whole business into its own hands, and not to leave that part on which, in modern times, not only the welfare but the existence of nations seems to depend, to its own course of deterioration and decay. Civilization has the same effects now which it has always had in all ages; and only general and true education will prevent modern states from relapsing into former barbarism, after being gradually dissolved by the disadvantages which, as far as we see at present, necessarily accompany the still greater advantages of civilization.

Education is a characteristic feature of modern civilization; it is essential for preserving and upholding the character of modern times. Ancient nations acted by impulse. Even where the government was in the hands of deliberative bodies, individuals, either great generals, or artful orators, settled and managed state affairs according to their wishes and inclinations. In modern times, and especially in our own, when public opinion and general liberty are continually gaining more ground, the affairs of the nation are directed by deliberation; whole nations begin to reflect, and public opinion, which may rightly be compared with reason in individuals, exercises full sway over the wishes and designs which proceed from single persons. It is no longer in the power

of the public speaker to render his opinion and his plans triumphant by the arts of rhetoric; they require first the sanction of public opinion. His speech may be admired, may even excite enthusiasm, yet people will not be carried away by the impulse of the moment; public opinion is of too powerful and general a nature to yield to the sudden effects of excited feelings. We live in a time when sound reason alone will be allowed to prevail; and for promoting this, universal education is the only true means pointed out by the nature of the case and the course of human events. That nation, therefore, which neglects the education of its members will necessarily fall behind those who cultivate and extend it, and will suffer from the consequences of not following the order of things which the course of human affairs requires.

A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE STATE OF EDUCATION

IN NORWAY.*

THE public establishments of education in Norway may be divided into three principal classes, viz. 1. Schools for the lower orders in the country (Almue Skoler); 2. Latin or learned schools and burger schools in the cities and towns; and, 3. the University of Christiania.

1. Schools for the Lower Orders-(Almue Skoler).

Every parish, where the locality permits, must have near the principal church a regular, or, as it is called, fixed school, where the children are instructed in (a) reading, combined with intellectual exercises, (b) religion and history of the Bible, (c) singing from the Psalm-book, (d) arithmetic and writing. The parish clerk (Klokker Kirkesanger) is the only teacher, being remunerated by the revenue of a small farm (Kiokkergaard) allowed for his use, by some other income, which he receives from the parishioners, and a small salary from the school fund of the parish, to the amount of from twenty to forty sp. ds.† (six sp. ds. being equal to one pound sterling). These teachers are appointed by the bishop of the diocese.

The children in the district are all compelled to attend the school from seven years of age till they are confirmed, at the age of about sixteen or seventeen, if the curate thinks it necessary for them to remain so long; and parents, who, *We are indebted for this communication to Mr. Ewerlöf, a Swedish gentleman.

+ Specie dollars.

without sufficient reasons, prevent their children from frequenting the school, are liable to a fine from a half to five sp. ds.

Every year there is held a public examination at the time appointed by the curate (rector) in the presence of the commissioners of the school, composed of the clergy, the Lensman (a sort of constable), and a certain number of parishioners.

Every parish has its own school fund, formed by the interest of certain sums allowed for these purposes and vested in landed property, by certain taxes paid by the inhabitants, voluntary contributions, fines, and other accidental revenues.

The proprietor of a mine, iron-work, or other manufactory, by which thirty workmen at least are regularly employed, is bound to maintain a fixed school on his property, and pay the teacher.

Besides the fixed school, every parish is divided into a certain number of ambulatory school districts, which have each a schoolmaster (omgaaende skoleholdere), who proceeds from one district to another, remaining a certain time at each place, in order to instruct the children of the neighbourhood in the above-mentioned branches of education.

As long as such a teacher instructs in a place, the inhabitants are compelled to give him free lodging, board, and attendance of servants. Besides, he enjoys a salary of twenty to forty sp. ds. a year, paid out of the parish school fund. They are principally appointed by the clergy of the district. This ambulatory method of instruction is rendered necessary by circumstances, the population being, in most districts of Norway, spread over a very large surface, so that there cannot be collected in one place à sufficient number of children for the establishment of a stationary or fixed school.

There are in several parts of the country seminaries for the education of these teachers, in order to render them capable of their task; and it is the intention of government to form more seminaries of this description as soon as the funds allowed for public instruction permit.

At present there are in Norway, in the country districts, 183 fixed schools, in which 13,693 children of both sexes are instructed, and 1610 ambulatory schools, with 132,632 children. Besides these there are, in the vicinity of towns, 55 regular schools, supported by the citizens, in which about 600 or 700 children are instructed in the before-mentioned topics.

2. Learned or Latin Schools.

These are founded partly by charitable donations, partly by the revenues arising from landed property, formerly be