general likeness to such of our perfections as fit him for the purposes to which we design him; but he shall also have a resemblance to us, in the rule and government of the creatures; for, though he be incapable of any of our attributes, he is capable of a purity, a rectitude, and a station of dominion, in which he may be our vicegerent." Thus, then, in a lower and looser sense, man was the image of God; possessing a likeness to him in respect to moral excellency, of which the creatures were absolutely void; and having also a resemblance to God, as his deputy, his representative, among and over the creation; for which he was qualified by holiness, knowledge, and other intellectual and moral attributes.

his mind was violated; the first compliance with sin opened the way to future compliances; grosser temptations might now expect success; and thus spotless purity becoming impure, perfect uprightness becoming warped, lost that entirety which had been its glory. Hereby Adam relinquished that distinction, which had fitted him for immediate communion with supreme holiness, and was reduced to the necessity of soliciting such communion, mediately, not immediately; by another, not by himself; in prospect, not instant; in hope, not in possession; in time future, not in time present; in another world, not in this. It is worthy of notice, how precisely the principles which infatuated Adam have ever governed his posterity; how suitable to the general character of the human race was the nature of that temptation by which their father fell!

tain this rite.

2. "Adam became a living soul;" by which we understand a living person, (1.) Because such is the import of the original, simply taken: (2.) Having mentioned that Adam was made of the dust of the earth, is a reason why the sacred writer should here mention his animation. But, (3.) It is very possible, that it implies some real distinction between the nature of the living principle, or soul, (not spirit,) in Adam, and that of animals. May we suppose that this principle, thus especially imparted by God, was capable of immortality; that, however the beasts might die by nature, man would survive by nature? that he had no inherent seeds of dissolution in him, but that his dissolution was the consequence of his sin, and the execution of the threatening, "dying thou shalt die ?" In fact, as Adam lived nearly a thousand years after eating the fruit, which, probably, poisoned his blood, how much longer might he not have lived, had that poison never been taken by him? See DEATH.

3. The character, endowments, and history of Adam, are very interesting subjects of reflection to the whole human race; and the rather, because the memorials respecting him, which have been transmitted to us, are but brief, and consequently obscure.

In considering the character of Adam, the greatest difficulty is, to divest ourselves of ideas received from the present state of things. We cannot sufficiently dismiss from our minds that knowledge (rather, that subtilty) which we have acquired by experience. We should, nevertheless, remember, that however Adam might be a man in capacity of understanding, yet in experience he could be but a child. He had no cause to distrust any, to suspect fraud, collusion, prevarication, or ill design. Where, then, is the wonder, if entire innocence, if total unsuspicion, should be deceived by an artful combination of appearances; by fraud and guile exerted against it? But the disobedience of Adam is not the less inexcusable on this account; because, as was his situation, such was the test given to him. It was not an active, but a passive duty; not something to be done, but something to be forborne; a negative trial Nor did it regard the mind, but the appetite; nor was that appetite without fit, yea, much fitter, supply in abundance all around it. Unwarrantable presumption, unrestrained desire, liberty extended into licentiousness, was the principle of Adam's transgression. 4. The breaking of a beautiful vase, may afford rome idea of Adam after his sin. The integrity of

might be much less finished, and only fertile to a certain degree. To promote its fertility, by cultivation, became the object of Adam's labor; so that in the sweat of his brow, he himself did eat bread. But the sentence passed on our first parents, doubtless regarded them as the representatives, the very concentration, of their posterity, the whole human race; and after attaching to themselves, it seems, prophetically also, to suggest the condition of the sexes in future ages, q. d. "The female sex, which has been the means of bringing death into the world, shall also be the means of bringing life-posterityto compensate the ravages of death;—and, to remind the sex of its original transgression, that which shall be its greatest honor and happiness shall be accompanied by no slight inconveniences. But the male sex shall be under the necessity of laboring for the support, not of itself only, but of the female and her family; so that if a man could with little exertion provide for himself, he should be stimulated by far greater exertions, to toil, to sweat, for the advantage and support of those to whom he has been the means of giving life."

6. Death closes the sentence passed on mankind; and was also prophetic of an event common to Adam, and to all his descendants. But see how the favor of God mitigates the consequences announced in this sentence! It inflicts pain on the woman, but that pain was connected with the dearest comforts, and with the great restorer of the human race; it assigns labor to the man, but then that labor was to support himself, and others dearer to him than himself, repetitions of himself; it denounces death, but death indefinitely postponed, and appointed as the path to life.-[The curse pronounced on man includes not only physical labor and toil, the barrenness of the earth, and its tendency to produce shrubs and weeds, which retard his exertions, and render his toil more painful and difficult; it includes not only the physical dissolution of the body; but also the exposure of the soul, the nobler part, to 'everlasting death.' There is no where in Scripture any hint that the bodies either of animals or of man in the state before the fall, were not subject to dissolution, just as much as at present. Indeed the whole physical structure goes to indicate directly the contrary. The life of man and of animals, as at present constituted, is a constant succession of decay and renovation; and so far as physiology can draw any conclusion, this has ever been the case. We may therefore suppose, that the death denounced upon

The Talmudists, Cabalists, Mahommedans, Persians, and other Eastern people, relate many fabulous stories relative to the creation and life of Adam, some of which may be seen in the larger edition of Calmet. II. ADAM was the name of a city near the Jordan, not far from Zarethan; at some distance from which the waters of Jordan were collected in a heap, when the children of Israel passed through, Josh. iii. 16. The name was not improbably derived from the color of the clay in its neighborhood, which was used for casting the vessels of the temple, 1 Kings vii. 46.

man, was rather moral and spiritual death; in that very day, he should lose the image of his Maker, and become exposed to that eternal doom, which has justly fallen upon all his race. Such is also the view of the apostle Paul; who every where contrasts the death introduced into the world through Adam with the life which is procured for our race through Jesus Christ, Rom. v. 12, seq. But this life is only spiritual; the death, then, in its highest sense, is also spiritual. So far, too, as the penalty is temporal and physical, no specific remedy is provided; no man is or can be exempt from it; and it depends not on his choice. But to remove the spiritual punishment, Christ has died; and he who will, may avoid the threatened death, and enter into life eternal.

7. In regard to the situation of Adam before the fall, his powers and capacities, his understanding and acquirements, very much has been said and written, but all of course to no purpose; since the Scriptures, the only document we have, are entirely silent on these points. The poetical statements of Milton in his Paradise Lost, are deserving of just as much credit as the speculations of Jewish Rabbins or Christian theologians. We can only affirm, that the Scriptures recognize man as being formed in his full strength of body and his full powers of mind; that he possessed not only the capacity for speech and knowledge, but that he was also actually in the possession and exercise of language, and of such knowledge at least as was necessary for his situation. There is no suggestion in the Bible, that he was formed merely with the powers requisite for acquiring these things, and then left at first in a state of ignorance which would place him on a level with the brutes, and from which he must have emerged simply by his own exertions and observation. On the contrary, the representation of the Bible is, that he was at first formed, in all respects, a full-grown man, with all the faculties and all the endowments necessary to qualify him for his station as lord of a new and beautiful creation. *R.

8. The salvation of Adam has been a subject of trivial dispute. Tatian and the Encratites were positive he was damned; but this opinion the church condemned. The book of Wisdom says, (chap. x. 2.) "That God delivered him from his fall," and the Fathers and Rabbins believe he did hard penance. Some of the ancients believed, that our first parents were interred at Hebron, which opinion they whimsically grounded on Joshua xiv. 15, " And the name of Hebron before was Kirjath-Arba, which Arba was a great man (Adam, □) among the Anakim." -Origen, Epiphanius, Jerome, and a great number hold that Adam was buried on Calvary; and this opinion has still its advocates. There is a chapel on mount Calvary dedicated to Adam.

66

Adam has been the reputed author of several books, and some have believed that he invented the Hebrew letters. The Jews say he is the author of the ninety-first Psalm; and that he composed it soon after the creation. The Gnostics had a book entitled, "The Revelations of Adam," which is placed among the apocryphal writings by pope Gelasius, who also mentions a book called "Adam's Penance." Masius speaks of another "Of the Creation," said to have been composed by Adam.-On all these, see Fabricii Cod. Pseudepigr. V. T. vol. i. Hottinger, Histor. Oriental. pag. 22.-The Arabians inform us, that Adam received twenty books which fell from heaven, and contained many laws, promises, and prophecies.

ADAMAH, a city of Naphtali, Josh. xix. 36. The LXX call it Armath; the Vulgate, Edema.

ADAMANT, vov shamir, a name anciently used for the diamond, the hardest of all minerals. It is used for cutting or writing upon glass and other hard substances, Jer. xvii. 1. It is also employed figuratively, Ezek. iii. 9; Zech. vii. 12. The same name of the diamond is common in Arabia.-Others suppose it to be the smiris, or emery.

ADAMI, a city of Naphtali, Josh. xix. 33. ADAMITES, a heretical sect of the second century, who affected to possess the innocence of Adam, and whose nakedness they imitated in their churches, which they called Paradise. Its author was Prodicus, a disciple of Carpocrates.

I. ADAR, the twelfth month of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and the sixth of the civil year. It has twenty-nine days; and nearly answers to our February and March, according to the Rabbins. (See MONTHS, and the JEWISH CALENDAR.) As the lunar year, which the Jews follow in their calculation, is shorter than the solar year by eleven days, which after three years make about a month, they then insert a thirteenth month, which they call VeAdar, or a second Adar, to which they assign twentynine days.

II. ADAR, a city on the southern border of Judah, Josh. xv. 3. In Numb. xxxiv. 4. it is called HazarAddar, or the court of Adar.

ADARSA, or ADASA, (1 Macc. vii. 40.) a city of Ephraim, four miles from Beth-horon, and not fa from Gophna, Joseph. Antiq. lib. xii. cap. 17; Euseb in Adasa. Perhaps, between the upper Beth-horo and Diospolis; because it is said (1 Macc. vii. 45. the victorious army of Judas pursued the Syrian from Adasa to Gadara, or Gazara, which is one day' journey. Adarsa is also called Adazer, and Adaco or Acedosa, in Josephus, Antiq. lib. xii. cap. 17. an de Bello, lib. i. cap. 1. Here Nicanor was over come, and his army put to flight by Judas Macca bæus, notwithstanding he had 3000 men only, whil Nicanor had 35,000. Josephus tells us, that Juda in another war, was killed in this place, de Bell lib. i. cap. 1.

ADDAR, see ADAR II.

ADDER, see ASP, and SERpent.

ADIABÉNE, a region of Assyria, frequently me tioned by Josephus, whose queen Helena and h son Izates were made converts to Judaism, Josep Antiq. xx. 2.

ADIDA, a city of Judah, where Simon Macc bæus encamped to dispute the entrance into t country with Tryphon, who had treacherous seized Jonathan at Ptolemais, 1 Macc. xii. 3 xiii. 13.

ADITHAIM, a city of Judah, whose situation not known, Josh. xv. 36.

ADMAH, the most easterly of the five cities the plain, destroyed by fire from heaven, and aft

together about a statue of the sun, which this prophet, who was a magician, had suspended between heaven and earth: there they began altogether to deplore the prophet's death; for which reason a festival was instituted every year, to renew the memory of this ceremony, at the beginning of the month Tammuz, which answers pretty nearly to our June. In this temple was a statue, representing Tammuz. It was hollow, the eyes were of lead, and a gentle fire being kindled below, which insensibly heated the statue, and melted the lead, the deluded people believed that the idol wept. All this time the Babylonish women, in the temple, were shrieking, and making strange lamentations. But this story requires proofs.

The scene of Adonis's history is said to have been at Byblos, in Phoenicia; and this pretended deity is supposed to have been killed by a wild boar in the mountains of Libanus, whence the river Adonis descends, (Lucian de Deâ Syrà,) the waters of which, at a certain time of the year, change color, and appear as red as blood. (See Maundrell, March 17.) This was the signal for celebrating their Adonia, or feasts of Adonis, the observance of which it was not lawful to omit.

The common people were persuaded to believe, that, at this feast, the Egyptians sent by sea a box made of rushes, or of Egyptian papyrus, in the form of a human head, in which a letter was enclosed, acquainting the inhabitants of Byblos, a city above seven days' journey from the coast of Egypt, that their god Adonis, whom they apprehended to be lost, had been discovered. The vessel which carried this letter arrived always safe at Byblos, at the end of seven days. Lucian tells us he was a witness of this event. Procopius, Cyril of Alexandria, (on Isaiah xviii.) and other learned men, are of opinion, that Isaiah alludes to this superstitious custom, when he says, "Wo to the land shadowing with wings, which is beyond the river of Ethiopia; that sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even vessels of bulrushes upon the waters." Some, as Bochart, (Phaleg. lib. iv. | cap. 2.) translate—“that sendeth images, or idols-by sea." But the Hebrew signifies, properly, ambassadors-deputed thither by sea, to carry the news of Adonis's resurrection. [The passage, however, has no reference to Adonis. See Ĝesenius, Commentar. in loc. R.

the Jewish women who sat weeping for Tammuz, that is, Adonis.

The fable of Adonis among the Greeks assumed a somewhat different form from that which it bore in the East. Among the Phoenicians the festival of Adonis took place in June, (hence called the month Tammuz,) and was partly a season of lamentation, and partly of rejoicing; see above. (Lucian de Dea Syra, 6. seq.) In the former, the women gave themselves up to the most extravagant wailings for the departed god, cut off their hair, or offered up their chastity as a sacrifice in his temple. The solemn burial of the idol, with all the usual ceremonies, concluded the days of mourning. To these succeeded, without any intermission, several days of feasting and rejoicing, on account of the returning god.-The meaning of this worship seems plainly to be symbolical of the course of the sun and his influence on the earth. In winter, the sun, as it were, does not act; for the inhabitants of the earth, he is in a measure lost, and all vegetation is dead; but in the summer months he diffuses every where life and joy, and has, as it were, himself returned to life. See Creuzer's Symbolik, ii. 91. Ed. 2. Hug's Untersuch. üb. d. Myth. 83 seq. R.

ADONI-ZEDEK, i. e. lord of righteousness, a king of Jerusalem, who made an alliance, with four other kings of the Amorites, against Joshua. A great battle was fought at Gibeon, where the Lord aided Israel by a terrific hail-storm, and Joshua commanded the sun to stand still. The five kings were signally defeated, and having hid themselves in a cave at Makkedah, were taken by Joshua and put to death. Josh. chap. x. R.

ADOPTION is an act by which a person takes a stranger into his family, in order to make him a part of it; acknowledges him for his son, and constitutes him heir of his estate. Adoption, strictly speaking, was not in general use among the Hebrews, as Moses says nothing of it in his laws; and Jacob's adoption of his two grandsons, Ephraim and Manasseh, (Gen. xlviii. 5.) was a kind of substitution, whereby he intended that his grandsons, the two sons of Joseph, should have each his lot in Israel, as if they had been his own sons: "Ephraim and Manasseh are mine; as Reuben and Simeon they shall be mine." As he gives no inheritance to their father Joseph, the effect of this adoption extended only to their increase of fortune and inheritance; that is, instead of one part, giving them (or Joseph, whom they represented) two parts.

How is this? Zedekiah is called, in Kings and I Chronicles, "the son of Josiah ;" in 2 Chronicles he is called, "the son of Jehoiakim."... By way of answer, we may observe, that perhaps Zedekiah was son, by natural issue, of Jehoiakim, whereby he was grandson to Josiah; but might not his grandfather adopt him as his son? We find Jacob doing this very thing to Ephraim and Manasseh, the sons of Joseph; "as Reuben and Simeon they shall be mine:" and they, accordingly, are always reckoned among the sons of Jacob. In like manner, if Josiah adopted Zedekiah, his grandson, to be his own son, then would this young prince be reckoned to him; and both places of Scripture are correct; as well that which calls him son of his real father, Jehoiakim, as that which calls him son of his adopted father, Josiah. That this might easily be the fact, appears by the dates; for Josiah was killed ante A. D. 606, at which time Zedekiah was eight or nine years old; he being made king ante A. D. 594, when he was twenty-one. By this statement the whole difficulty, which has greatly perplexed the learned, vanishes at once. [This mode of accounting for the apparent discrepancy in question, rests wholly on conjecture, and is quite unnecessary. We have only to take the word brother in 2 Chron. xxxvi. 10. in the wider and not unusual sense of kinsman, relative, and the difficulty vanishes much more easily than before. Thus in Gen. xiv. 16, Abraham is said to have “brought back his brother Lot,” although Lot was really his nephew. In the same manner in Gen. xxix. 12, 15, Jacob is said to be the brother of Laban, his uncle. R.

which made up his possessions to threescore cities, (Josh. xiii. 30; 1 Kings iv. 13.) however, as well he, as his posterity, and their cities, instead of being reckoned to the family of Judah, as they ought to have been, by their paternal descent from Hezron, are reckoned as sons of Machir, the father of Gilead. Nay, more, it appears, (Numbers xxxii. 41.) that this very Jair, who was, in fact, the son of Segub, the son of Hezron, the son of Judah, is expressly called "Jair, the son of Manasseh," because his maternal | great-grandfather was Machir, the son of Manasseh; and Jair, inheriting his property, was his lineal representative. So that we should never have suspected his being other than a son of Manasseh, naturally, had only the passage in Numbers been extant.-In like manner, Sheshan, of the tribe of Judah, gives his daughter to Jarha, an Egyptian slave; (whom he liberated, no doubt, on that occasion;) the posterity of this marriage, however, Attai, &c. not being reckoned to Jarha, as an Egyptian, but to Sheshan, as an Israelite, and succeeding to his estate and station in Israel, 1 Chron. ii. 34, &c. So we read, that Mordecai adopted Esther, his niece; he took her to himself to be a daughter (Heb. "for a daughter.") This being in the time of Israel's captivity, Mordecai had no landed estate; for if he had had any, he would not have adopted a daughter, but a son, Esther ii. 7. So the daughter of Pharaoh adopted Moses; and he was to her for a son, Exod. ii. 10. So we read, Ruth iv. 17. that Naomi had a son; a son is born to Naomi; | when indeed it was the son of Ruth, and only a distant relation, or, in fact, none at all, to Naomi, who was merely the wife of Elimelech, to whom Boaz was a kinsman, but not the nearest by consanguinity. In addition to these instances, we have in Scripture a passage which includes no inconsiderable difficulty in regard to kindred; but which, perhaps, is allied to some of these principles. The reader will perceive it at once, by comparing the columns.

2 KINGS XXIV. 17. "And the king of Babylon made Mattaniah, his [Jehoiachin's] FATH ER'S BROTHER, king in his stead; and changed his name to Zedekiah.”

1 CHRON. iii. 15. "And the sons of Josiah were, the first-born Johanan, the second Jehoiakim, the third Zedekiah."

JEREMIAH i. 2, 3. "In the days of Jehoiakim, the son of Josiah, king of Judah; unto the eleventh year of Zedekiah, the son of Josiah, king of Judah." Also, chap. xxxvii. 1. "And king Zedekiah, the son of Josiah, reigned.". By this it

appears that

Zedekiah was SON to Josiah, the father of Jehoiakim; and, consequently, that he was UNCLE to Jehoiachin.

2 CHRON. Xxxvi. 9, 10.

"Jehoiachin reigned three months and ten days in Jerusalem, and when the year was expired, king Nebuchadnezzar sent and brought him to Babylon, with the goodly vessels of the house of the Lord; and made Zedekiah, HIS BROTHER, king over Judah and Jerusalem."

By this it appears that Zedekiah was SON to Jehoiakim.

It should seem, then, that in any of the instances above quoted, the party might be described, very justly, yet very contradictorily :—as thus,

This kind of double parentage would be very perplexing to us, as we have no custom analogous to it; and possibly it might be somewhat intricate where it was practised; however, it occurs elsewhere, beside in Scripture. We have a singularly striking instance of it in a Palmyrene inscription, copied by Mr. Wood, &c. who remarks, that it is much more difficult to understand than to translate: This," says he, "will appear by rendering it literally, which is easiest done into Latin," thus:

"Senatus populusque Alialamenem, Pani filium, Mocimi nepotem, Eranis pronepotem, Mathe abnepotem; et Eranem patrem ejus, viros pios et patriæ amicos, et omnimodi placentes patriæ patriisque diis, honoris gratia: Anno 450, mense Aprili.”

"Our difficulty is, that Eranes is called the FATHER of Alialamenes [whereas Alialamenes is himself called] the SON of Panus." Wood's account of Palmyra.

The sense of this inscription may be thus rendered:

"Erected by the senate and the people to Alialamenes, the son of Panus, grandson of Mocimus, great-grandson of Eranes, great-great-grandson of