nan denotes. It is to the dragon, properly so called, that we shall now direct our attention. The proper dragon, the Draco volans of Linnæus, is a harmless species of lizard, found in Asia and Africa. Three kinds of dragons were formerly distinguished in India; but they are unknown to modern naturalists. 1. Those of the hills and mountains. 2. Those of the valleys and caves. 3. Those of the fens and marshes. The first is the largest, and covered with scales, as resplendent as burnished gold. They have a kind of beard hanging from their lower jaw; their aspect is frightful, their cry loud and shrill, their crest bright yellow, and they have a protuberance on their heads the color of a burning coal. 2. Those of the flat country are of a silver color, and frequent rivers, to which the former never come. 3. Those of the marshes are black, slow, and have no crest. Their bite is not venomous, though the creatures be dreadful. The following description of the boa is chiefly abstracted and translated from De Lacepede, by Mr. Taylor, who considers it as the proper dragon of the Scriptures. At any rate, some species of enormous serpent seems to have been intended. The BOA is among serpents, what the lion or the elephant is among quadrupeds; he usually reaches twenty feet in length, and to this species we must refer those described by travellers, as lengthened to forty or fifty feet, as related by Owen. Kircher mentions a serpent forty palms in length; and such a serpent is referred to by Ludolph, as extant in Ethiopia. Jerome, in his life of Hilarion, denominates such a serpent, draco or dragon; saying, that they were called boas, because they could swallow (boves) beeves, and waste whole provinces. Bosman says, entire men have frequently been found in the gullets of serpents on the gold coast; but the longest serpent I have read of, is that mentioned by Livy, and by Pliny, which opposed the Roman army under Regulus, at the river Bagrada in Africa. It devoured several of the soldiers; and so hard were its scales, that they resisted darts and spears: at length it was, as it were, besieged, and the military engines were employed against it, as against a fortified city. It was a hundred and twenty feet in length. At Batavia was taken a serpent, which had swallowed an entire stag of a large size; and one taken at Bunda had, in like manner, swallowed a negro woman. Lequat, in his Travels, says, there are serpents fifty feet long in the island of Java. At Batavia they still keep the skin of one, which, though but twenty feet in length, is said to have swallowed a young maid whole. The serpent quaka, or liboya, (hoa,) is unquestionably the biggest of all serpents; some being eighteen, twenty-four, and even thirty feet long, and of the thickness of a man in the middle. The Portuguese call it Kobre de hado, or the roebuckserpent; because it will swallow a whole roebuck or other deer; and this is performed by sucking it through the throat, which is pretty narrow, but the belly vastly big. Such a one I saw near Paraiba, which was thirty feet long, and as big as a barrel. Some negroes accidentally saw it swallow a roebuck, whereupon, thirteen musketeers were sent out, who shot it and cut the roebuck out of its belly. It is not venomous. This serpent, being a very devouring creature, greedy of prey, leaps from among the hedges and woods, and, standing upright on its tail, wrestles both with men and wild beasts; sometimes it leaps from the trees upon the traveller, whom it fastens on, and beats the breath out of his body with its tail. From this account of the boa, it is, perhaps, not improbable, that John had it in his mind when he describes a persecuting power under the symbol of a great red dragon. The dragon of antiquity was a serpent of prodigious size, and its most conspicuous color was red; and the apocalyptic dragon strikes vehemently with his tail; in all which particulars it perfectly agrees with the boa. "And there appeared another wonder in heaven, and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads. And his tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth," Rev. xii. 3, 4, 15-17. The number of heads here given to this creature is certainly allegorical; as are also the ten horns, and the seven crowns which are attached to them. But in all these instances, says Paxton, it is presumed that the inspired writer alludes either to historical facts or natural appearances. It is well known, that there is a species of snake called amphisbæna, or doubleheaded, although one of them is at the tail of the animal, and is only apparent. A kind of serpent, indeed, is so often found with two heads growing from one neck, that some have fancied it might form a species; but we have, as yet, no sufficient evidence to warrant such a conclusion. Admitting, however, that a serpent with two heads is an unnatural production, for this very reason it might be chosen by the Spirit of God, to be a prototype of the apocalyptic monster. The horns seem to refer to the cerastes or horned snake, the boa or proper dragon having no horn. But this enormous creature has a crest of bright yellow, and a protuberance on his head, in cofor like a burning coal, which naturally enough suggests the idea of a crown. The remaining particulars refer to facts in the history of the boa, or other serpents. The tail of the great red dragon "drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth." The boa frequently kills his victim with a stroke of his tail. Stedman mentions an adventure in his "Expedition to Surinam," which furnishes a very clear and striking illustration of this part of our subject. It relates to one of these large serpents, which, though it certainly differs from the red dragon of Asia and Africa, combines several particulars connected with our purpose. He had not gone from his boat above twenty yards, through mud and water, when he discovered a snake rolled up under the fallen leaves and rubbish of the trees; and so well covered, that it was some time before he distinctly perceived the head of the monster, distant from him not above sixteen feet, moving its forked tongue, while its eyes, from their uncommon brightness, appeared to emit sparks of fire. He now fired; but missing the head, the ball went through the body, when the animal struck round, and with such astonishing force, as to cut away all the underwood around him, with the facility of a scythe mowing grass, and by flouncing his tail, caused the mud and dirt to fly over his head to a considerable distance. He returned, in a short time, to the attack, and found the snake a little removed from his former station, but very quiet, with his head as before, lying out among the fallen leaves, rotten boughs, and old moss. He fired at him immediately; and now, being but slightly wounded, he sent out such a cloud of dust and dirt, as our author declares he never saw but in a whirlwind. At the third fire, the snake was shot through the head; all the negroes present declared it to be but a young one, about half grown, although, on measuring, he found it twenty-two feet and some inches, and its thickness about that of his black boy, who might be about twelve years old. These circumstances account for the sweeping destruction which the tail of the apocalyptic dragon effected among the stars of heaven. The allegorical incident has its foundation in the nature and structure of the literal dragon. The only other circumstance which requires explanation is the flood of water ejected by the dragon, after he had failed in accomplishing the destruction of the woman and her seed. The venom of poisonous serpents is commonly ejected by a perforation in the fangs, or cheek teeth, in the act of biting. We learn, however, from several facts, that serpents have a power of throwing out of their mouth a quantity of fluid of an injurious nature. The quantity cast out by the great red dragon, is in proportion to his immense size, and is called a flood or stream, which the earth, helping the woman, opened her mouth to receive. Gregory, the friend of Ludolph, says, in his History of Ethiopia, "We have in our province a sort of serpent, as long as the arm. He is of a glowing red color, but somewhat brownish. This animal has an offensive breath, and ejects a poison so venomous and stinking, that a man or beast within the reach of it, is sure to perish quickly by it, unless immediate assistance be given. At Mouree, a great snake being half under a heap of stones and half out, a man cut it in two, at the part which was out among the stones; and as soon as the heap was removed, the reptile, turning, made up to the man, and spit such venom into his face, as quite blinded him, and so he continued some days, but at last recovered his sight." The word dragon is sometimes used in Scripture to designate the devil, (Rev. xii. freq.) probably on account of his great power, and vindictive cruelty; though not without reference to the circumstances attending the original defection of mankind. DRAGON-WELL, THE, (Neh. ii. 13.) lay east of Jerusalem. DREAM. The eastern people, and in particular the Jews, greatly regarded dreams, and applied for their interpretation to those who undertook to explain them. We see the antiquity of this custom in the history of Pharaoh's butler and baker, (Gen. xl.) and Pharaoh himself, and Nebuchadnezzar, are also instances. God expressly forbade his people from observing dreams, and from consulting explainers of them. He condemned to death all who pretended to have prophetic dreams, and to foretell events, even though what they foretold came to pass, if they had any tendency to promote idolatry, Deut. xiii. 1-3. But they were not forbidden, when they thought they had a significative dream, to address the prophets of the Lord, or the high-priest in his ephod, to have it explained. Saul, before the battle of Gilboa, consulted a woman who had a familiar spirit, "because the Lord would not answer him by dreams, nor by prophets," 1 Sam. xxviii. 6, 7. The Lord frequently discovered his will in dreams, and enabled persons to explain them. The Midianites gave credit to dreams, as appears from that which a Midianite related to his companion; and from whose interpretation Gideon took a happy omen, Judg. vii. 13, 15. The prophet Jeremiah (xxiii. 25, 28, 29.) exclaims against impostors who pretended to have had dreams, and abused the credulity of the people. The prophet Joel (ii. 28.) promises from God, that in the reign of the Messiah, the effusion of the Holy Spirit should be so copious, that the old men should have prophetic dreams, and the young men should receive visions. The word signifies, likewise, those vain images beheld in imagination while we sleep, which have no relation to prophecy, Job xx. 8; Isa. xxix. 7. (See also Eccl. v. 3, 7.) Dreams should be carefully distinguished from visions: the former occurred during sleep, and, therefore, were liable to much ambiguity and uncertainty; the latter, when the person, being awake, retains possession of his natural powers and faculties. God spake to Abimelech in a dream-but to Abraham by vision. Jacob saw in a dream the method of producing certain effects on his cattle; and God told Laban, in a dream, not to injure Jacob. Now, in these and other instances of dreams, the subjects dreamed of appear to be the very matters which had occupied the minds of these persons while awake; and, when asleep, Providence overruled, or improved their natural cogitations, to answer particular purposes. But in the case of visions, the thing scen was unexpected; the mind was not prepared for it, nor could it previously have imagined what was about to occur. But to fix the distinction between visions and dreams, we do not recollect more appropriate instances than those furnished by the book of Job. The vision is thus described, chap. iv. 12. "Now a thing was secretly brought to me, stole upon me, and mine ear received a little thereof." "In thoughts from, of, visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on man, fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed before my face, the hair of my flesh stood up: it stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof; an image was before mine eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice," &c. That is, his senses were in exercise, but the image was too fine, too aërial, for his complete discernment of it; his bodily organs were not defective, but the subject surpassed their powers;-probably the prophets had additional or superior powers bestowed on them, when they were enabled to behold visions. Now, a dream is described (chap. xxxiii. 15.) as happening "when deep sleep falleth upon men, in slumberings upon the bed." Perhaps it is neither easy nor necessary to distinguish, always, when the word dream is used, whether it may not denote a vision; but it should seem likely that when the agency of an angel is mentioned, that then more than a mere dream is implied; as, to Jacob, (Gen. xxxi. 11.) and to Joseph, Matthew i. 20; ii. 13, 19. DREAMER is used as a word of reproach; of Joseph by his brethren, (Gen. xxxvii. 19.) and of Shemaiah, Jer. xxix. 24. (See chap. xxvii. 9, and Jude 8. See also Isa. lvi. 10.) DRESSES, or GARMENTS. The Hebrews wore a coat, or waistcoat, tunic, called nan, chetoneth; and a cloak, called by, meil. The coat was their under garment, next the skin, and the cloak their upper one. These two garments made what Scripture calls a change of raiment, (2 Kings v. 15, 22.) such as those which Naaman brought as presents to Elisha. The coat was commonly of linen; and the cloak of stuff, or woollen; and as this was only a great piece of stuff, not cut, there were often many made, each of a single piece, of which they used to make presents. [The meil was, properly, not a cloak, but a long and wide robe or tunic, without sleeves. R.] The Hebrews never changed the fashion of their clothes, that we know of; but they dressed after the manner of the country in which they dwelt. A white color, or a purple, was in the most esteem among them. Solomon advises him who would live agreeably, (Eccl. ix. 8.) to let his garments be always white; and Josephus observes of this prince, that, being the most splendid and magnificent of kings, he was commonly clothed in bright and white garments. Angels generally appeared in white; and in our Saviour's transfiguration, his clothes appeared as white as snow. It is well known that Christians newly baptized, immediately after the rite, put on white garments, anciently, as symbolical of a new life, to be devoted to holiness and piety. These garments they wore at least a week publicly. Hence we read in the Revelation of those who had washed their robes and made them white; and of those who should walk with the Lamb, in white, being worthy; and of being clothed in white raiment, as a mark of having overcome the world. This token of joy and gratulation was familiar at the time; and to a certain degree it is so still. Most virgins, when newly married, wear white; and that is thought becoming in them which, in a widow who re-married, would be deemed affectation. | than others, Matt. xxiii. 5. Jerome adds, that to make a show of greater austerity, they fastened thorns to them, that when they struck against their naked legs, they might be reminded of the law of God. The garments of mourning among the Hebrews were sack-cloth and hair-cloth; and their color dark brown, or black. As the prophets were penitents by profession, their common clothing was mourning. Widows, also, dressed themselves much the same. Judith fasted every day, except on festival days, and the sabbath day, and wore a hair-cloth next her skin, Judith viii. 6. The prophet Elias, (2 Kings i. 7,8.) and John the Baptist, (Matt. iii. 4.) were clothed in skins or coarse stuffs, and wore girdles of leather. Paul says, (Heb. xi. 37.) that the prophets wore (melotes) sheep-skins, or goat-skins. The false prophets put on habits of mourning and penitence, the better to deceive the people, Zech. xiii. 4. It is well known that red-colored garments were the usual dresses worn by the frantic Bacchantes. It is not, then, without a specific object, that the writer of the Revelation describes the woman-the prostitute-the mother of harlots, as “arrayed in purple and scarlet color, and decked with gold, and precious stones, and pearls-having a golden cup in her hand Mention is made in Scripture of a coat of many-and drunken with the blood of the saints, and of the colors, (Gen. xxxvii. 3.) with which Joseph was martyrs," chap. xvii. His original readers would clothed; as also Tamar, daughter of David ; (2 Sam. sufficiently understand what power it was which the xiii. 18.) but interpreters are divided about the signi- merchants of the earth lamented, as no longer purfication of this word. Some translate it by a long chasing her luxuries. gown, reaching to the ankles, talaris, and this is the more probable sense; others, by a gown striped with several colors; and others by a gown with large sleeves. The Arabians wear very wide sleeves to their coats, having a very large opening at the end, which hangs sometimes down to the ground; but at the shoulder they are much narrower. Some coats were without seams, woven in a loom, and had no openings, either at the breast, or on the sides; but only at the top, to let the head through. Such, probably, were the coats of the priests, (Exod. xxviii. 32.) and that of our Lord, (John xix. 23.) which the soldiers would not divide, but chose rather to cast lots for. The women formerly made the stuffs and cloth, not only for their own clothes, but also for their husbands and children, Prov. xxxi. 13. Moses informs us (Deut. viii. 4.) that the clothes worn by the Hebrews in the wilderness did not wear out. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell these forty years." Justin Martyr, and some interpreters, following the rabbins, take these words literally, and think that not only the clothes of the Israelites did not grow old, or wear out, but also that those of the children grew with them, and constantly fitted them at every age! But others think, with much greater probability, that Moses intended only that God so effectually provided them with necessaries, that they did not want clothes, nor had been forced to wear old or ragged clothes in all their journey. To distinguish the Israelites from other people, the Lord commanded them to wear tufts, or fringes, at the four corners of their upper garments, of a blue color, and a border of galoon on the edges, Numb. xv. 38; Deut. xxii. 12. From Matt. ix. 20, we see that our Saviour wore these fringes; for the woman who had the issue of blood, promised herself a cure, if she did but touch the hem, that is, the fringe, of his garment. The Pharisees, still further to distinguish themselves, wore these borders, or fringes, longer PRESENTS OF DRESSES are alluded to very frequently in the historical books of Scripture, and in the earliest times. When Joseph gave to each of his brethren a change of raiment, and to Benjamin five changes, it is mentioned without particular notice, and as a customary incident, Gen. xlv. 22. Naaman gave to Gehazi, from among the presents intended for Elisha, who declined accepting any, two changes of raiment; and even Solomon received raiment as presents, 2 Chron. ix. 24. This custom is still maintained in the East, and is mentioned by most travellers. The following extract from De la Motraye, notices, as a peculiarity, that the grand seignior gives his garment of honor before the wearer is adnitted to his presence; while the vizier gives his honorary dresses after the presentation. This will, perhaps, apply to the parable of the wedding garment, and to the behavior of the king, who expected to have found all his guests clad in robes of honor, (Matt. xxii. 11.) as also to Zech. iii. where Joshua, being introduced to the angel of the Lord, stood before the angel with filthy garments; who ordered a handsome robe to be given to him. Jonathan divested himself of his robe, and his upper garment, even to his sword, his bow, and his girdle-partly intending David the greater honor, as having been apparel worn by himself; but principally, as it may be conjectured, through haste and speed, he being impatient of honoring David, and covenanting for his affection. Jonathan would not stay to send for raiment, but instantly gave David his own. The idea of honor connected with the caffetan, appears also in the prodigal's father,—"bring forth the best robe." We find the liberality in this kind of gifts was considerable.-Ezra ii. 69, "The chief of the fathers gave one hundred priests' garments." Neh. vii. 70, "The Tirshatha gave five hundred and thirty priests' garments."-This would appear sufficiently singular among us; but in the East, where to give is to honor, the gift of garınents, or of any other usable commodities, is in perfect compliance with established the East generally use dromedaries for speed; and we are assured that some of them can travel a hundred miles a day. The animal is governed by a bridle, which, being usually fastened to a ring fixed in the nose, may very well illustrate the expression, (2 Kings xix. 28.) of putting a hook into the nose of Sennacherib, and may be further applicable to his swift retreat. Isaiah (lx. 6.) calls this creature, as Bochart believes, biccuroth. Bichra, the feminine of bicher, is taken for a dromedary, in Jer. ii. 23, by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. Bonaparte, when commanding the French army in Egypt, formed a military corps mounted on dromedaries. sentiments and customs. "The vizier entered at Very few English readers, however, are sufficiently aware of the importance attached to the donation of robes of honor in the East. They mark the degree of estimation in which the party bestowing them holds the party receiving them; and sometimes the conferring or withholding of them leads to very serious negotiation, and misunderstandings. For some remarks on, and descriptions of, the dresses of the bride and bridegroom in Solomon's Song, see the article CANTICLES. Mr. Taylor has devoted much labor in attempts to elucidate several | passages of Scripture in which articles of dress are spoken of; but as his speculations do not admit of abridgment, we can only thus refer to them. To DRINK. This phrase is used sometimes properly, sometimes figuratively. Its proper sense needs no explanation. The wise man exhorts his disciple (Prov. v. 15.) to "drink water out of his own cistern;" to content himself with the lawful pleasures of marriage, without wandering in his affections. To eat and drink is used in Ecclesiastes v. 18, to signify people's enjoying themselves; and in the gospel for living in a common and ordinary manner, Matt. xi. 18. The apostles say, they ate and drank with Christ after his resurrection; that is, they conversed, and lived in their usual manner, freely, with him, Acts x. 41. Jeremiah (ii. 18.) reproaches the Jews with having had recourse to Egypt for muddy water to drink, and to Assyria, to drink the water of their river; that is, the water of the Nile and of the Euphrates; meaning, soliciting the assistance of those people. To drink blood, signifies to be satiated with slaughter, Ezek. xxxix. 18. Our Lord commands us to drink his blood and to eat his flesh: (John vi.) we eat and drink both figuratively, in the eucharist. To drink water by measure, (Ezek. iv. 11.) and to buy water to drink, (Lam. v. 4.) denote extreme scarcity and desolation. On fast days the Jews abstained from drinking during the whole day, believing it to be equally of the essence of a fast, to suffer thirst as to suffer hunger. DRUMA, Gideon's concubine, and mother of DRUNK, DRUNKENNESS, a well known and debasing indisposition, produced by excessive drinking. The first instance of intoxication on record is that of Noah, (Gen. ix. 21.) who was probably ignorant of the effects of the expressed juice of the grape. The sin of drunkenness is most expressly condemned in the Scriptures, Rom. xiii. 13; 1 Cor. vi. 9, 10; Eph. v. 18; 1 Thess. v. 7, 8. Men are sometimes represented as drunk with sorrow, with afflictions, and with the wine of God's wrath, Isa. Ixiii. 6; Jer. li. 57; Ezek. xxiii. 33. Persons under the influence of superstition, idolatry, and delusion, are said to be drank, because they make no use of their natural reason, Isa. xxviii. 7; Rev. xvii. 2. Drunkenness sometimes denotes abundance, satiety, Deut. xxxii. 42; Isa. xlix. 26. To "add drunkenness to thirst,” (Deut. xxix. 19.) is to add one sin to another, i. e. not only pine in secret after idol-worship, but openly practise it. (See Stuart's Heb. Chrest. on this passage.) DRUSILLA, the youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. and sister of the younger Agrippa and of Bernice, celebrated for her beauty and infamous for her licentiousness. She was first espoused to Epiphanes, son of Antiochus, king of Comagena, on condition of his embracing the Jewish religion; but as he afterwards refused to be circumcised, Drusilla was given in marriage by her brother to Azizus, king of Emessa. When Felix came as governor of Judea, he persuaded her to abandon her husband and her religion, and become his wife. Paul bore testimony before them to the truth of the Christian religion, Acts xxiv. 24. (See Joseph. Ant. xix. 9. 1; xx. 7. 1, 2.) *R. DUKE. This word, being a title of honor in use in Great Britain, and signifying a higher order of nobility, is apt to mislead the reader, who, in Gen. xxxvi. 15-43, finds a long list of dukes of Edom: but the word duke, from the Latin dux, merely signifies a leader or chief, and the word chief ought rather to have been preferred in our translation. (See 1 Chron. i. 51.) DULCIMER, (Dan. iii. 5, 10.) an instrument of music, as is usually thought; but the original word, which is Greck, (ovuqoria, symphony,) renders it doubtful whether it really mean a musical instrument, or a musical strain, chorus, or accompaniment of many voices, or instruments, in concert and harmony. It is difficult to account for the introduction of this Greek word into the Chaldee language, unless we suppose that some musicians from Greece, or from western Asia, had been taken captive by NebuchadDROMEDARY, a species of smaller camel, hav-nezzar, in his victories over the cities on the coast of ing on their backs a kind of natural saddle, composed of two great hunches. Persons of quality in the Mediterranean, and that these introduced certain of their own terms of art among the king's band of music; as we now use much of the language of Italy in our musical entertainments. [The rabbins describe the sumponya of Daniel as a sort of bagpipe, composed of two pipes connected with a leathern sack, and of a harsh, screaming sound. Even at the present day, the common pipe, or shalm of the common people, (nearly resembling the hautboy,) is in Italy called zampogna, and in Asia Minor sambonya. The dulcimer, by which the Hebrew is improperly rendered in the English version, is an instrument of a triangular form, strung with about fitty wires, and struck with an iron key, while lying on a table before the performer. It is confined mostly to puppet shows and itinerant musicians. R. I. DUMAH, a city of Judah, Josh. xv. 52. II. DUMAH, a tribe and country of the Ishmaelites in Arabia, Gen. xxv. 14; Isa. xxi. 11. This is doubtless the same which is still called by the Arabs Duma the stony, the Syrian Duma, situated on the confines of the Arabian and Syrian desert, with a fortress. (See Gesenius Lex. Heb. Man. Lat. Niebuhr's Arabia, p. 344.) *R. DUMB. (1.) One unable to speak by reason of natural infirmity, Exod. iv. 11. (2.) One unable to speak by reason of want of knowledge what to say, or how to say it; what proper mode of address to use, or what reasons to allege on his own behalf, Prov. xxxi. 8. (3.) One unwilling to speak, Ps. xxxix. 9. We have a remarkable instance of this venerating dumbness, or silence, in the case of Aaron, (Lev. x. 3.) after Nadab and Abihu, his sons, were consumed by fire. "Aaron held his peace;" did not exclaim against the justice of God, but saw the propriety of the divine procedure, and humbly acquiesced in it. | he tells us that cow-dung is sometimes eaten through all desert Arabia, (Lettre du Traducteur du Cantique des Cantiques,) which is only true as explained to mean nothing more than that their bread is, not unfrequently, baked under the embers of cow-dung : but, is eating bread so baked eating cow-dung?" (Harmer, Observations.) As every reader may not be acquainted with the ordinary usages of the East, a few remarks may suggest the value of fire, i. e. fuel; which in all parts of Asia is considerable, and in some districts excessive, while they will tend to set the passages in the prophet in its true light. "In Arabia," says Niebuhr, (vol. i. p. 91.) "the dung of asses and camels is chiefly used for fuel, because these two species are the most numerous and common. Little girls go about, gathering the dung in the streets and upon the highways; they mix it with cut straw; and of this mixture make cakes, which they place along the walls, or upon the declivity of some neighboring eminence, to dry them in the sun." But this is cleanliness itself compared with the accounts of Tournefort, (vol. iii. p. 137.) who reports of Georgia,-"where our tents were pitched, for the first time, in the dominions of the king of Persia [we could see] a great many pretty considerable villages; but all this fine country yields not one single tree, and they are forced to burn cows' dung. Oxen are very common here, and they breed them as well for their dung as for their flesh." Speaking of Erzeroum, he says, (page 95.) "Besides the sharpness of the winters, what makes Erzeroum very unpleasant, is, the scarcity and dearness of wood; nothing but pine wood is known there, and that they fetch two or three days' journey from the town: all DUNG. The directions given to the prophet Eze- the rest of the country is quite naked-you see neither kiel, (chap. iv. 12-16.) have been much misunder-tree nor bush; and their common fuel is cows' dung, stood, and have also given occasion for many imper- which they make into turfs; but they are not comtinent remarks. In the following observations, the parable to those our tanners use at Paris; much less disingenuousness of Voltaire on this subject is set in to those prepared in Provence of the husks of the a just light :olive. I don't doubt better fuel might be found, for the country is not wanting in minerals; but the people are used to their cow-dung, and will not give themselves the trouble to dig for it. "Tis almost inconceivable what a horrid perfume this dung makes in the houses, which can be compared to nothing but fox-holes, especially the country houses; every thing they eat has a stench of this vapor; their cream would be admirable but for this pulvilis; and one might eat very well among them, if they had wood for the dressing their butchers' meat, which is very good." "Monsieur Voltaire seems to be extremely scandalized at this circumstance, for he has repeated the objection over and over again in his writings. He supposes somewhere that denying the providence of God is extreme impiety; yet in other places he supposes the prophetic intimation to Ezekiel, that he should prepare his bread with human dung, as expressive of the hardships Israel were about to undergo, could not come from Gcd, being incompatible with his majesty: God, then, it naturally follows, never did reduce by his providence any poor mortals into such a state, as to be obliged to use human dung in preparing their bread; never could do it. But those who are acquainted with the calamities of human life will not be so positive on this point, as this lively Frenchman. To make the objection as strong as possible, by raising the disgust of the elegant part of the world to the greatest height, he, with his usual ingenuousness, supposes that the dung was to be eaten with the bread prepared after this manner, which would form an admirable confection, Comme il n'est point d'usage de manger des telles confitures sur son pain, la pluspart des hommes trouvent ces commandemens indignes de la Majesté Divine. (La Raison par Alphabet, Art. Ezekiel.) The eating bread baked by being covered up under such embers, would most certainly be great misery, though the ashes were swept and blown off with care; but they could hardly be said to eat a composition of bread and human excrements. With the same kind of liberty, We find, then, that the use of such fuel is the ordinary custom of the country; and that not only, or chiefly, those who are outcasts from society, or are "steeped in poverty to the very lips," use this disgusting kind of fuel, but also the general level of the inhabitants, in a city of considerable note and magnitude. Le Bruyn is still more particular: he says, (p. 228.) "Wood is very dear in this country, and is sold by weight; they give you but twelve pounds of it for four pence or five pence, and the same it is with regard to coals. Whence it is they are obliged to make use of turf, made of camels' dung, cow-dung, sheep's dung, horse-dung, and ass-dung. The chief Armenians of Julfa do so as well as the rest, or else the fire would cost more than the victuals; whereas they give but thirty pence for two hundred and twenty, or two hundred and thirty, pound weight of this turf. They use it more particularly for heating of ovens, in which they bake most of their meats in |