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breaches in the rock, and were convinced that they were effects of an earthquake. It must have been terrible, since the centurion and those with him, were so affected by it, as to acknowledge the innocence of our Saviour, Luke xxiii. 47. The word earthquake is also used in a more limited sense, to denote prodigious agitations of mountains, shocks of the foundation of the universe, effects of God's power, wrath, and vengeance, figurative exaggerations, which represent the greatness, strength, and power of God, Psalm civ. 32; xviii. 7; xlvi. 2; cxiv. 4. It sometimes figuratively expresses a dissolution of the powers of government in a country, or state, Rev. xvi. 18, 19.

EAST. The Hebrews express east, west, north, and south, by before, behind, left, and right; according to the situation of a man whose face is turned to the rising sun. Hence forwards means towards the east.

It appears from many places in the Old and New Testaments, that the sacred writers called the provinces around and beyond the Tigris and Euphrates, (Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Persia,) Kedem, or the East. Moses, who was educated in Egypt, and lived long in Arabia, might probably follow that custom; especially as Babylonia, Chaldea, Susiana, Persia, much of Mesopotamia, and the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, are, for the greater part of their course, east of Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia. Beside this, as those who came from Armenia, Syria, Media, and Upper Mesopotamia, entered Palestine and Egypt on the east side, it was sufficient to warrant the Hebrews in saying, that these people lay east of them; and that these countries were known among the Hebrews under the name of the East, appears from several passages. Balaam says, (Numb. xxiii. 7.) that Balak, king of Moab, had brought him from the mountains of the East; i. e. from Pethor on the Euphrates. Isaiah says, (xli. 2.) that Abraham came from the East into the land of Canaan; and (xlvi. 11.) that Cyrus should come from the East against Babylon. In chap. ix. 12. he places Syria east of Judea. Daniel says, (xi. 44.) Antiochus should be troubled with news of a revolt of the eastern provinces; i. e. the provinces on the other side of the Euphrates; and Matthew says, that the wise men who came to worship Jesus, came from the East, chap. ii. 1. All this confirms the opinion, that in the Scripture style, the East is often used for the provinces which lie easterly, though perhaps inclining to the north of Judea and of Egypt. It is remarked, that this word in the Greek of Matthew, (ii. 1.) gives us no certain idea of the country whence the Magi came; but it might not be so in the original Syro-Chaldaic document, from which perhaps the apostle copied. In that language, a certain country was most probably determined by this appellation. We know not whether the Talmudists may help us in this instance; but they thus speak: "from Rekam to the East, and Rekam itself is as the East"- that is, excluded from the land of Israel, eastward, and consequently is heathen land; if, then, Rekam adjoined the land of Israel, we need not go very far to seek the East, which adjoined Rekam. We may ask also as to the Magi-What was their Syriac title? In the Gemara we have a story of an Arabian informing a Jew that the Messiah was born:-if this were a memorial of Eastern Arabia, it may agree with the country east of Rekam; which would not greatly differ from the districts occupied by the sons of Abraham, and called "the East," Gen. xxv. 6; Judg. vi. 3.

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We read (Gen. xi. 1, 2.) that mankind departed from Kedem; in our translation the East;" upon which there has been much controversy. It would be useless to detail the various conjectures of learned men as to the situation of Kedem. We have seen that there are several districts in Scripture so called; some being close to Syria; but for this Kedem we must direct our researches to a country east of Babylonia; since the inhabitants of this country came thither after a journey "from the East." [The country here meant is, unquestionably, that in the vicinity of mount Ararat, where mankind first settled after the deluge. To come from that country to Babylonia, it was necessary to keep along on the east side of the Median mountains, and then issue at once from the east upon the plain. (See Bryant's Mythol. iii. p. 24; also Mr. Smith's letter under the article ARARAT.) R.

EAST WIND. See WIND.

EASTER. It is no honor to our translators, that this word occurs in the English Bible, Acts xii. 4; it should have been passover, which feast of the Jews we well know. Easter is a word of Saxon origin; and imports a goddess of the Saxons, or rather of the East, Estera, in honor of whom sacrifices being annually offered about the passover time of the year, (spring,) the name became attached by association of ideas to the Christian festival of the resurrection, which happened at the time of the passover; hence we say Easter-day, Easter-Sunday, but very improperly; as we by no means refer the festival then kept to the goddess of the ancient Saxons. So the present German word for Easter, Ostern, is referred to the same goddess, Estera or Ostera.

EATING. The ancient Hebrews did not eat indifferently with all persons; they would have esteemed themselves polluted and dishonored by eating with those of another religion, or of an odious profession. In Joseph's time they neither ate with the Egyptians, nor the Egyptians with them; (Gen. xliii. 32.) nor in our Saviour's time, with the Samaritans, John iv. 9. The Jews were scandalized at his eating with publicans and sinners, Matt. ix. 11. As there were several sorts of meats, the use of which was prohibited, they could not conveniently eat with those who partook of them, fearing to receive pollution by touching such food, or if by accident any particles of it should fall on them. See MEATS.

At their meals, some suppose they had each his separate table; and that Joseph, entertaining his brethren in Egypt, seated them separately, each at his particular table, while he himself sat down separately from the Egyptians, who ate with him; but he sent to his brethren portions out of the provisions which were before him, Gen. xliii. 31, et seq. Elkanah, Samuel's father, who had two wives, distributed their portions to them separately, 1 Sam. i. 4, 5. In Homer, each guest is supposed to have had his little table apart; and the master of the feast distributed meat to each, Odyss. xiv. 446 seq. We are assured that this is still practised in China; and that many in India never eat out of the same dish, nor on the same table with another person, believing they cannot do so without sin; and this, not only in their own country, but when travelling, and in foreign lands.

This is also the case with the Brahmins and various castes in India; who will not ever use a vessel after a European, though he may caly have drank from it water recently drawn out of a well. The same strictness is observed by the more scrupulous

among the Mahometans; and instances have been known of every plate, and dish, and cup, that had been used by Christian guests, being broken immediately after their departure.

The ancient manners which we see in Homer, we see likewise in Scripture, with regard to eating, drinking, and entertainments. There was great plenty, but little delicacy; great respect and honor paid to the guests by serving them plentifully. Joseph sent his brother Benjamin a portion five times larger than those of his other brethren. Samuel set a whole quarter of a calf before Saul; Sam. ix.

24. The women did not appear at table in entertainments with the men; this would have been an indecency; as it is at this day throughout the East.

The Hebrews anciently sat at table, but afterwards imitated the Persians and Chaldeans, who reclined on table-beds, or divans, while eating. As a knowledge of this fact is of importance to a right understanding of several passages in the New Testament, we shall offer some remarks upon it. The accompanying engraving represents one of the common eating tables.

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(1.) The reader is requested to notice the construction of the tables, i. e. three tables, so set together as to form but one. (2.) Around these tables are placed, not seats, but couches, or beds, one to each table; each of these beds being called clinium, three of these united, to surround the three tables, formed the triclinium (three beds.) These beds were formed of mattrasses stuffed; and were often highly ornamented. (3.) Observe the attitude of the guests; each reclining on his left elbow; and therefore using

principally his right hand, that only (or at least chiefly) being free for use. Observe also, that the feet of the person reclining being towards the external edge of the bed, they were much more readily reached by any body passing, than any other part of the person so reclining.

In circular or crescent-formed tables, the right extremity was the first place of honor, and the left extremity the second place of honor. We may suppose the same of the square triclinium.

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as such a person could not have any one lying in his bosom; or is it probable that the Jews esteemed some other part, perhaps the left extremity, as the place of honor? It is certain that the Turks and Chinese do so.

The tables which the Jews are represented as pu

For want of proper discrimination and description, in respect to the attitude at table, as before noticed, several passages of the Gospels are not merely injured as to their true sense, but are absolutely reduced to nonsense, in our English translation. So Luke vii. 36: "A woman in the city who was a sinner, when she knew that Jesus SAT at meat in the phari-rifying by washing, (Mark vii. 4.) are these kind of see's house, brought an alabaster box of ointment, and stood at his feet behind him, weeping; and began to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head; and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment." Now, surely, when a person sits at meat, according to those ideas which naturally suggest themselves to an English reader, his feet, being on the floor under the table, are before him, not behind him; and the impossibility of any one standing at his feet behind him, and while standing, kissing his feet, wiping them, &c. is glaring. However, by inspecting the engraving, the narration becomes intelligible; the feet of a person recumbent, being outermost, are most exposed to salutation, or to any other treatment, from one standing behind them. The same observations apply to John xii. 3: "Lazarus was one who reclined at table (razuiver) with Jesus; and Mary anointed the feet of Jesus," &c.

Assisted by these ideas, we may better understand the history of our Lord's washing his disciples' feet, (John xiii. 5.) He poureth water into a basin, and going round the beds whereon the disciples reclined, he began to wash their feet, which lay on the external edge of the couch, and to wipe them with the towel wherewith he was girded, &c. (verse 12.)" after he had taken his garments and was reclined again, he said," &c.

It is not easy to ascertain precisely the form of the beds anciently used among the Persians; but, by regarding them as something like what our engravings represent, we may see the story of Haman's petitioning Esther for his life, in nearly its true light. While the king went into the garden, Haman first stood up to entreat Esther to grant him his life; and being desirous of using even the most pathetic mode of entreaty, he fell prostrate on the bed where the queen was lying recumbent ; the king, that instant returning, observing his attitude, and his nearness to the queen, which was utterly contrary to female modesty, and to royal dignity, exclaimed, "What! will he also force the queen! she being in my company, in the palace ?" But, when Esther fell at the king's feet, (chap. viii. 3.) we are to consider the king as seated on the divan, or sofa, in a very different attitude, and disposition of his person. See BED.

This may be a proper place to notice the import of some other expressions, which, appearing to be similar, might seem to infer the same attitude. So, "Mary sat at Jesus's feet" to hear his discourse; while Martha was cumbered about much serving. Martha, standing before Jesus, said, "Lord, direct my sister to help me," but Mary was sitting at the feet of Jesus, close to the divan on which he sat; where we see clearly that both the sisters, one standing, the other sitting, might be before Jesus, as he sat on the divan. See BED

It would be perhaps overstraining these remarks, to apply them to some of those slighter incidents which sacred history has recorded; it is nevertheless proper to notice, how justly John might be said to "lie in Jesus's bosom" (John xiii. 23.) at the supper table. Is it supposable, from circumstances, that our Lord was not in the chief place of honor, (according to the Grecks, the right extremity of the triclinium,)

beds, (zivo)-purifying, as if they had been polluted by the recumbence of strangers; unless it were customary, as in point of neatness it ought to be, to wash the tables after every meal, and before they received guests again. This, however, could not extend to the bolsters and pillows, as they could not be made sufficiently dry to receive guests, in so short a time as intervened between one meal and another. [The mode of reclining at table on couches was common in the East, and also among the Greeks and Romans. The general character of these meals appears to have been the same in the latter nations and among the Hebrews, and may be found described, with references to the necessary classical authorities, in Potter's Greek Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 375, seq. and Adam's Rom. Antiq. Philad. 1807. p. 434, seq. It was at a later period, under the emperors, that the semicircular couch, above represented, was introduced. In still later times, the custom was adopted which still prevails in the East, of sitting or reclining on the floor at meat, and at other times on cushions, etc.

The present mode of eating in the East is shown in the following extracts from travellers. Dr. Jowett, while on a visit to Deir el Kamr, not far from Beyroot, has the following remarks: (Chr. Researches in Syria, &c. p. 210. Amer. ed.) "To witness the daily family habits, in the house in which I lived at Deir el Kamr, forcibly reminded me of Scripture scenes. The absence of the females at our meals has been already noticed. There is another custom, by no means agreeable to a European; to which, however, that I might not seem unfriendly, I would have willingly endeavored to submit, but it was impossible to learn it in the short compass of a twenty days' visit. There are set on the table, in the evening, two or three messes of stewed meat, vegetables, and sour milk. To me, the privilege of a knife and spoon and plate was granted: but the rest all helped themselves immediately from the dish; in which it was no uncommon thing to see more than five Arab fingers at one time. Their bread, which is extremely thin, tearing and folding up like a sheet of paper, is used for the purpose of rolling together a large mouthful, or sopping up the fluid and vegetables. But the practice which was most revolting to me was this: when the master of the house found in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out with his fingers, and applied it to my mouth. This was true Syrian courtesy and hospitality ; and, bad I been sufficiently well-bred, my mouth would have opened to receive it. On my pointing to my plate, however, he had the goodness to deposit the choice morsel there. I would not have noticed so trivial a circumstance, if it did not exactly illustrate what the Evangelists record of the Last Supper. St. Matthew relates that the traitor was described by our Lord in these terms-He that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me, xxvi. 23. From this it may be inferred that Judas sat near to our Lord; perhaps on one side next to him. St. John, who was leaning on Jesus's bosom, describes the fact with an additional circumstance. Upon his asking, Lord, who is it? Jesus answered, He it is to whom

I shall give a sop, when I have dipped it. And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon. And after the sop, Satan entered into him, xiii. 25-27.

Niebuhr's account is as follows: (Descr. of Arabia, p. 52.) "The table of the orientals is arranged according to their mode of living. As they always sit upon the floor, a large cloth is spread out in the middle of the room upon the floor, in order that the bits and crumbs may not be lost, or the carpets soiled. [On journeys, especially in the deserts, the place of this cloth is supplied by a round piece of leather, which the traveller carries with him. Travels ii. p. 372.] Upon this cloth is placed a small stool, which serves as a support for a large round tray of tinned copper; on this the food is served up in various small dishes of copper, well tinned within and without. Among the better class of Arabs, one finds, instead of napkins, a long cloth, which extends to all who sit at table, and which they lay upon their laps. Where this is wanting, each one takes, instead of a napkin, his own handkerchief, or rather small towel, which he always carries with him to wipe himself with after washing. Kuives and forks are not used. The Turks sometimes have spoons of wood or horn. The Arabs are so accustomed to use the hand instead of a spoon, that they can do without a spoon even when eating bread and milk prepared in the usual manner. Öther kinds of food, such as we commonly eat with a spoon, I do not remember to have seen. "It is, indeed, at first, very unpleasant to an European, just arrived in the East, to eat with people who help themselves to the food out of the common dish with their fingers; but this is easily got over, after one has become acquainted with their mode of life. As the Mohammedans are required, by their religion, very often to wash themselves, it is therefore even on this account probable, that their cooks prepare their food with as much cleanliness as those of Europe. The Mohammedans are even obliged to keep their nails cut so short, that no impurity can collect under them; for they believe their prayers would be without any effect, if there should be the least impurity upon any part of the body. And since, now, before eating, they always wash themselves carefully, and generally too with soap, it comes at length to seem of less consequence whether they help themselves from the dish with clean fingers, or with a fork.

"Among the sheikhs of the desert, who require at a meal nothing more than pillau, i. e. boiled rice, a very large wooden dish is brought on full; and around this one party after another set themselves, till the dish is emptied, or they are satisfied. In Merdin, where I once ate with sixteen officers of the Waiwode, a servant placed himself between the guests, and had nothing to do, but to take away the empty dishes, and set down the full ones which other servants brought in. As soon as ever the dish was set down, all the sixteen hands were immediately thrust into it; and that to so much purpose, that rarely could any one help himself three times. They eat, in the East, with very great rapidity; and at this meal in Merdin, in the time of about twenty minutes, we sent out more than fourteen empty dishes." *R.

In closing this subject, we may properly notice the obligations which are considered by eastern people to be contracted by eating together. Niebuhr says, "When a Bedouin sheikh eats bread with strangers, they may trust his fidelity and depend on his protection.- -A traveller will always do well,

therefore, to take an early opportunity of securing the friendship of his guide by a meal." The reader will recollect the complaint of the Psalmist, (xli. 9.) penetrated with the deep ingratitude of one whom he describes as having been his own familiar friend, in whom he trusted-"who did eat of my bread, even he hath lifted up his heel against me!" To the mortification of insult was added the violation of all confidence, the breach of every obligation connected with the ties of humanity, with the laws of honor, with the bonds of social life, with the unsuspecting freedom of those moments when the soul unbends itself to enjoyment, and is, if ever, off its guard. Under the article COVENANT OF SALT, we saw the obligation contracted by the participation of bread and salt; we now find, that among the Arabs, at least, the friendship and protection implied attaches no less to bread. Hence, in part, no doubt, the conviviality that always followed the making of a covenant. Hence, also, the severity of some of the feelings acknowledged by the indignant man of patience, Job, as appears in several passages of his pathetic expostulations. It is well known that Arabs, who have given food to a stranger, have afterwards thought themselves bound to protect him against the vengeance, demanded by consanguinity, for even blood itself.

EBAL, a mountain in Ephraim, near Shechem, over against mount Gerizim, from which it is separated by a valley of about two hundred paces wide, in which stands the town of Shechem. Both mountains are much alike in length, height, and form, and their altitude is stated by Mr. Buckingham not to exceed 700 or 800 feet, from the level of the valley. But if they are alike in these particulars, in others they are very unlike; for Ebal is barren, while Gerizim is beautiful and fruitful. The Jews and Samaritans have great disputes about them. (See GERIZIM.) Moses commanded Israel, that as soon as they had passed the Jordan, they should go to Shechem, and divide into two bodies, each composed of six tribes, one placed on, that is, adjacent to, Ebal; the other on, that is, adjacent to, Gerizim. The six tribes on, or at, Gerizim, were to pronounce blessings on those who should faithfully observe the law; and the six on mount Ebal, were to pronounce curses against those who should violate it, Deut. xxvii. This Joshua executed, Josh. viii. 30, 31. Moses enjoined them to erect an altar of unhewn stones on mount Ebal, and to plaster them over, that the law might be written on the altar; but the Samaritan Pentateuch, instead of Ebal reads Gerizim because the altar and sanctuary of the Samaritans were there. See SHECHEM.

EBED-MELECH, a eunuch or servant of king Zedekiah, who being informed that Jeremiah was imprisoned in a place full of mire, informed the king of it, and was the means of his restoration to safety, though not to liberty. For this humanity he was promised divine protection, and after the city was taken by Nebuzaradan he was preserved, Jeremiah xxxviii. 7.

EBEN-EZER, stone of help, a witness stone erected by Samuel, of divine assistance obtained, 1 Sam. vii. 12.

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compassed with seven walls, of unequal heights; the largest, according to Herodotus, (lib. i. cap. 98.) was equal in extent with those of Athens; that is, 178 furlongs, or nearly eight leagues, (Thucyd. lib. i.) After the union of Media with Persia, Ecbatana became the summer residence of the kings of Persia, because of the freshness of the air. It still subsists, under the name of Hamadan, in lat. 34° 53′ N. long. 40° E. Its inhabitants are stated by Mr. Kinnier to be about 40,000, including about 600 Jewish families. It is supposed to be mentioned under the name of Achmetha, Ezra vi. 2.

ECCLESIASTES. This word is feminine in the Hebrew, and literally signifies, one who speaks in public; or, one who convenes the assembly. The Greeks and Latins, not regarding the gender, render it Ecclesiastes, an orator, one who speaks in public. Solomon describes himself in the first verse, "The words of Koheleth, [Eng. Vers. 'the Preacher,'] the son of David, king of Jerusalem." He mentions his works, his riches, his buildings, and his proverbs, or parables, and that he was the wisest and happiest of all kings in Jerusalem; which description plainly characterizes Solomon. This book is generally thought to be the production of Solomon's repentance, towards the latter end of his life. It proposes the sentiments of the Sadducees and Epicureans in their full force; proves excellently the vanity of all things; the little benefit of men's restless and busy cares, and the uncertainty of their knowledge; but concludes, "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments, for this is the whole of man." In this all his obligations terminate; this is his only means to happiness, present and future. In reading this book, care should be taken not to deduce opinions from detached sentiments, but from the general scope and combined force of the whole.

ECCLESIASTICUS, a book so called in Latin, either to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes, or to show that it contains, as well as that, precepts and exhortations to wisdom and virtue. The Greeks call it "The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach." It contains maxims and instructions, useful in all states and conditions of life. Some of the ancients ascribed this work to Solomon; but the author is much more modern than Solomon, and speaks of several persons who lived after that prince. He mentions himself in chap. i. 27: "I, Jesus, the son of Sirach, have written in this book the instruction of understanding and knowledge." Chap. li. is inscribed, "A prayer of Jesus, the son of Sirach." The interpreter of it out of Syriac or Hebrew into Greek, says, that his grandfather Jesus composed it in Hebrew; but we have no authentic information who he was, nor when he lived. He praises the high-priest Simon, and speaks of him as not then living: but there were more high-priests than one of this name. Nevertheless, it is probable, he means Simon II. after whose death those calamities befell the Jews, which might induce the son of Sirach to speak as he does, chap. xxxvi. and l. The translator of it into Greek canie into Egypt in the thirty-eighth year of Ptolemy VII. surnamed Euergetes, the second of that name; as he says in his preface. The author of the Latin translation from the Greek is unknown. Jerome says, the church receives Ecclesiasticus for edification, but not to authorize any point of doctrine.

ECDIPPA, otherwise Achzib, which see. ECLIPSE. The Hebrews seem not to have philosophized much on eclipses, which they considered

as sensible marks of God's anger. See Joel ii. 10, 31; iii. 15; Job ix. 7.-Ezekiel (xxxii. 7.) and Job (xxxvi. 32.) speak more particularly, that God covers the sun with clouds, when he deprives the earth of its light, by eclipses. Yet, when we read that "the sun shall be turned into darkness; and the moon into blood," we can hardly avoid discerning an acquaintance with the appearance of those luminaries while under eclipse. The interruption of the sun's light causes him to appear black; and the moon during a total eclipse exhibits a copper color; or what Scripture intends by a blood color. See DARKNESS.

ED, witness, the name given to the altar erected by the two tribes and a half, who were settled beyond Jordan, Josh. xxii. 34. It was probably a copy or repetition of that which was used among the Hebrews, their brethren, and it was built to witness to posterity the interest of these tribes in the altar common to the descendants of the patriarch Israel.

I. EDEN, a province in Asia, in which was paradise. "The Lord planted eastward a garden, 12 14, in Eden, and there he put the man whom he had forined," Gen. ii. 8. The topography of Eden is thus described: "And a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. The name of the first is Pison; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where is gold... bdellium, and the onyxstone. And the name of the second river is Gihon; the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is Hiddekel; that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates," ver. 10-14.

cus.

There is hardly any part of the world in which it has not been sought in Asia, in Africa, in Europe, in America; in Tartary, on the banks of the Ganges, in the Indies, in China, in the island of Ceylon, in Armenia; under the equator; in Mesopotamia, in Syria, in Persia, in Babylonia, in Arabia, in Palestine, in Ethiopia, among the Mountains of the Moon; near the mountains of Libanus, Antilibanus, and DamasHuet places it on the river produced by the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates, now called the river of the Arabs; below this conjunction and the division of the same river, before it falls into the Persian sea. He selects the eastern shore of this river, which being considered according to the disposition of its channel, and not according to the course of its stream, was divided into four heads, or four different openings, that is, two upwards, the Tigris and Euphrates, and two below, the Pison and Gihon. The Pison, according to him, is the western channel, and the Gihon is the eastern channel of the Tigris, which discharges itself into the Persian gulf. It is said that Bochart was much of the same opinion. (Phaleg. lib. i. cap. 4; De Anim. Sacr. part ii. lib. v. cap. vi.) Other skilful men have placed Eden in Armenia, between the sources of the rivers, (1.) Tigris, (2.) Euphrates, (3.) Araxis, (4.) Phasis, taken to be the four rivers described by Moses. Euphrates is expressly mentioned; Hiddekel is the Tigris; the Phasis is Pison; the Gihon is the Araxes.

The orientals think, that the terrestrial paradise was in the island of Serendib, or Ceylon; and that when Adam was driven out of paradise, he was sent to the mountain of Rahoun in this island, two or three days' journey from the sea. The Portuguese call this mountain Pico de Adamo, or mountain of Adam, because it is thought that this first of men was buried under it, after he had lived in repentance

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