throughout Europe. Succeeding sovereigns among whom Peter I. and Catharine II. were pre-eminent, not only enlarged their territories, but promoted civilization and improvement of every kind; and at length raised the Russian empire to the dignity of a first rate European power.

The Russian national character appears to be marked with sedateness and tranquillity, mixed with liveliness and sociability. They are hospitable and good-tempered among one another, capable of strong attachments, sagacious, and patient of hardships. The servitude in which the lower classes live, and the despotic rule exercised over the highest, have made them supple, cunning, and crouching; and manly elevation of soul, with steady principle, are rarely met with among them. The ancient nobility have vast estates, which they reckon by the number of vassals with which they are stocked; and they live in a kind of rude magnificence, shunning the court and public employments.

The Russian peasantry are remarkable for their readiness in acquiring the common arts of life, several of which they exercise for domestic purposes. In the higher departments of intellect nothing masterly or original has yet appeared among them; which may perhaps be owing to their recent civilization. Their implicit obedience, joined with natural robustness of constitution and habits of endurance, renders them excellent soldiers in the modern practice of war, where mechanic discipline is more requisite than enthusiastic ardour. They shrink at no danger or fatigue, and are only to be conquered by extermination.

A singular circumstance in the Russian manners is the universal use made of hot and vapour-bathing, in which they support a degree of heat that would be intolerable to one unaccustomed to the practice. It is common among those of the lower class to roll naked in the snow after leaving one of these ovens ; nor does it appear that they suffer from this violent change. Their fondness for the bath seems to have been derived from an oriental source, to which many of their other customs may be referred.

The Russian language is a dialect of the Sclavonian, having no affinity with the current tongues of Europe, either in sound or syntax. It is difficult of pronunciation to a stranger, yet it abounds in vowels, and possesses considerable softness and melody. Russian literature is of late date, and is not likely ever to have the advantage of being judged and admired in the rest of Europe. It consists at present chiefly of translations; yet some original works in history and poetry have been popular in the country. The German language is much employed as a medium, both in commerce and science: indeed it is the native tongue of many subjects of the Russian empire.

The government of Russia is uncontrolled despotism in the person of a sovereign nationally entitled the czar, but known to other countries by the title of emperor, or autocrator. There is a senate, but it is only a court of judicature, and the legislative authority is an emanation from the throne. Like other despotic thrones, that of Russia has been subject to sudden and violent revolutions. Late events have shown that it is unsafe, even for so absolute a monarch, to sport with the habits and feelings of the nation; nor does it appear that the rules of succession are fixed and determinate. The late empress Catharine, though only the foreign widow of the emperor whom she had deposed, enjoyed a long and undisturbed reign after her son was arrived at manhood. The spirit of the government is entirely military, and all rank is adjusted by military titles. The empire is divided into governments, or viceroyalties, which are administered by persons with the rank of generals.

The predominant religion of Russia is that of the Greek church, a circumstance owing to its conversion to Christianity under the influence of the court of Constantinople. It has a numerous clergy, both regular and secular, the latter of whom are permitted to marry. A patriarch is at the head of the hierarchy, whose power, formerly dangerous to the crown, was reduced by the czar Peter. The Russian clergy are reckoned in general very ignorant and by no means exemplary in their morals. Their flocks are extremely superstitious, and their

religion consists chiefly in a rigorous observance of the fasts of the church, and profound veneration to the pictures of their saints. A full toleration is granted to all the numerous religions which are professed by the subjects of the empire, and also by strangers who reside in it; but they are not permitted to make converts: and those of the natives who belong to the established church must always continue members of it. Every thing in this empire is done by command, and nothing is left to the decision of individual will.

The European part of the Russian empire constitutes so large a share of its population and consequence, that a political sketch of it may be given without waiting for the description of the Asiatic part. Out of about forty governments, 34 or 35 are allotted to Europe. The whole population, including the recent acquisitions from Turkey and Poland, has lately been estimated at 36 millions, of which number only about three millions and a half are assigned to Asia. The armies which the edict of the sovereign may raise from such a mass of people can scarcely be reduced to calculation; the standing troops of all kinds are stated at five or six hundred thousand. It was the earnest wish, or rather the ruling passion, of Peter I. to render Russia a maritime power; and it was with this view that he made himself master of the former Swedish provinces on the gulf of Finland, and founded Petersburg. But nature has opposed almost unsurmountable obstacles to this project. The few ports that Russia possesses in the Baltic are frozen up during many winter months; and it is only by a very circuitous and hazardous navigation that her ships can come round to her ports on the Black sea, and form a junction with any squadron fitted out from thence. The Caspian is still more remote from the centre of her power; and is, besides, a sea utterly unfit for vessels of force. Russia, however, by great exertions, has created a respectable navy in the Baltic; and her flag is now seen in the Black sea in sufficient strength to give uneasiness to the Ottoman Porte.

The Russians are naturally little addicted to a seafaring life, and their commercial navy is inconsiderable. The exportation of

the country is chiefly carried on in foreign bottoms. The prin cipal articles of export are corn, iron, timber, tar and pitch, hemp, flax, potash, tallow, wax, isinglass, raw and dressed skins, and manufactured linen. Many of these articles come down from great distances in the interior country, their carriage being facilitated by the system of water communication, which is more extensive in the Russian empire than in any other, that of China, perhaps, excepted. By means of the canal of Vishnei-Woloshok, which unites the Tvertza running into the Volga, with the Shlina, communicating by other rivers with the lake Ladoga, and thence with the Neva, goods may be conveyed without landing from Astrakan to Petersburg, a distance of 1434 miles, or from the Caspian to the Baltic. By means of rivers alone they may be conveyed from the frontiers of China to Petersburg, with the interruption of only about 60 miles this conveyance, indeed, is extremely tedious. Russia has many manufactures of her own for common consumption, but articles of luxury are for the most part imported from other countries.

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Of the cities in Russia, the first place in point of population and extent is due to Moscow, the ancient capital. It has a central and pleasant situation, upon a river which runs into the Volga; and, though deserted by the court, is still the favourite residence of the old Russian nobility. Moscow occupies a vast compass of ground, being built in the open straggling Asiatic manner, and presents a singular mixture of mean wooden huts with spacious palaces and public edifices. It has a great number of churches, the gilded spires and domes of which afford a very striking and splendid prospect on the approach. Its population is stated at about 250,000.

St. Petersburg, the wonderful creation of Peter the Great, is situated on marshy ground where the Neva issues into the gulf of Finland, near the 60th degree of N. latitude. The maritime passion alone could have induced the czar to found a new capital for his empire in a place destitute of every natural advantage, under a rigorous climate, and remote from all the best parts of his dominions. It has, however, continued to be

the imperial residence, and the seat of all public business, and by vast expense and exertions has been rendered not unworthy of íts high destination. Its palaces and public edifices are built in a style of massy and solid magnificence scarcely elsewhere to be paralleled. Its quays or embankments on the Neva are faced with blocks of granite, and seem calculated for perpetual duration. The city may be said to be yet in its infancy, as the great outline of its plan is very imperfectly filled; nor does its population, computed at 170000, yet place it among the firstrate capitals of Europe. Its streets present an extraordinary and amusing spectacle of natives of the numerous nations and races composing this vast empire, as well as of foreigners from various countries of Europe, distinguished by their several habits and manners. The port of Petersburg is frequented by a great number of trading vessels, especially from Great Britain, whose merchants occupy one of the best built streets in the city, and live in great credit. Large ships cannot get over the bar of the Neva, but remain at Cronstadt, a port in the gulf, twenty miles below which is also the station of the men of war. Petersburg possesses all the accommodations and amusements of a luxurious metropolis, and its court is surpassed by none in Europe in splendour and expense. It has an academy of sciences, which has published many valuable memoirs; but its principal members are foreigners.

The next important place in a commercial view is Riga, the capital of Livonia. Its harbour is greatly frequented by foreign merchants, who export from it large quantities of naval stores, grain, and other products of the country. Archangel, the most northerly harbour on the European continent, notwithstanding the short period of the year in which it is accessible, carries on a considerable trade in the export and import for that part of the Russian dominions. Very large ships built of fir and larch at a great distance up the Dwina, are among its exported articles. At the opposite extremity of the empire, on the Black sea, ports have been formed in the Crimea and the adjacent territory, which are beginning to rise to consequence of these are Cherson, Kaffa, Sebastopol, and Odessa. The latter is