220 ON WARMING AND VENTILATING BUILDINGS, ETC. quite clear that the less of it there is, the better; and it is more than probable that, during the decomposition of snow, a great portion of the carbon is converted into carbonic acid, even supposing the air in the snow contained no greater amount of oxygen than atmospheric air; and in this supposition I am fully borne out by the analyses that have been made of the air in snow water-the great difference in the amount of oxygen determined by various great chemists being referable, in my opinion, to the rate at which the snow was melted. And I must confess that it appears to me altogether unaccountable, how such great men, having obtained so small an amount of oxygen as ten per cent., and at the same time observed the presence of carbon, which assuredly could not have escaped their notice, should not, at least, have suspected the correctness of the present theory of rain, particularly as it is well known that sulphuric acid is blackened if exposed to the air on the tops of mountains; and a greater amount of carbonic acid is at times appreciable in the same locality than in the plain-which latter facts are in no way to be accounted for on the present theories of rain and diffusion of gases. It has been observed to me more than once, when in conversation on the subject of clouds, that the steam as it escapes from locomotive engines affords a very good representation of those bodies; and what has surprised me more is, that such an observation should be made by really intelligent men; for this steam, issuing as it does through the funnel of the engine, must necessarily be charged with carbonic acid gas, and we know is also greatly contaminated with solid matter, and therefore is more illustrative of my theory than that of others. Ice, it has been well determined, evaporates at all temperatures; and if wet clothes be hung out of doors during frosty weather, they first freeze and then dry. In order to determine whether snow also evaporated, which it should do if it be analogous to ice, I requested of Dr. Crichton to weigh equal portions of ice and snow, and to so dispose of them that they should be subject to no other influence than that of evaporation : but unfortunately the very day that my letter reached him the thaw commenced. I observed, however, that during fortyeight hours a small quantity of snow, which I spread on a wall, underwent no change until the temperature of the atmosphere increased; and I have no hesitation, therefore, in expressing my conviction, that in this respect snow is in no way analogous to ice; and it being apparently intended by nature to protect vegetation from frost, it appears to be almost unreasonable to suppose that it should evaporate. Electricity then is imparted to the atmosphere by the decomposition of water, and is abstracted from it by the formation of water; and we find that during fine weather, whilst evaporation goes on freely, that the electrical condition of the air is improved and the density of the atmosphere is increased; but that for several days before rain, particularly during summer, when the effect is more sensibly felt, that the atmosphere gradually becomes less electric, the mercury falls, and organic matter rapidly undergoes decomposition, all of which phenomena are perfectly in accordance with my ideas, but are in no way to be accounted for on the present theory of rain; and it may be observed, that if snow be handled, it imparts great warmth to the hands; and, as we find, that immediately after heavy rain, the electrical condition of the air is restored, it induces me strongly to suspect, that snow has in its constitution free electricity; and, if so, there can be no difficulty in accounting for the masses of electric fluid that are liberated during heavy showers of rain, and why heavy falls of rain should restore the electric condition of the air. In the tropics, the rains are periodical; and when it does not rain in those latitudes, the dew is as great as some showers of rain in this country. It becomes a question, then, whether a particular angle of the sun's rays, as they traverse those of the earth, be not necessary to produce the electric state necessary for the decomposition of moisture; it being quite evident, that if rain depend on the contact of two clouds, at different temperatures, there is no reason why the moisture taken up from the earth's surface in those regions should not be precipitated during the day as well as during the night; it being clear, that temperature can have nothing to do in the matter, since the rain, at particular seasons, falls there in torrents. Air is capable of holding vapour in ON WARMING AND VENTILATING BUILDINGS, ETC. solution or suspension, in proportion to its rise in temperature; and I have satisfied myself, by actual experiment, that the atmosphere of a room, raised in temperature by animal heat, is charged with vapour in proportion to such rise in temperature; but that the open air is not charged in the same proportion, or, in fact, to any greater amount than a colder atmosphere, is certain, as no condensation takes place on ice-carts, of which fact I have frequently satisfied myself, if evaporation go on freely; or, as I conceive it to be, if the atmosphere be in such an electric state as to effect the decomposition of vapour as it arises from the earth. It is therefore quite clear to me, that the electrical condition of a room has much to do with the purity of its atmosphere; and, if the vapour condensed in a room be tested, it will be found saturated with carbonic acid gas. In the spring and autumn of the year, great changes of temperature take place - in this climate; which changes, from a low to a higher temperature, are, at times, but not invariably, accompanied by the rapid deposition of moisture on the walls of our buildings; and, so far as my time would enable me to determine, those condensations have invariably been accompanied by a fall in the barometer. Dew (the undecomposed portion of the moisture taken up by evaporation) does not, we know, always fall in this country during summer, if the sky be ever so clear; and we know that white frost, congealed vapour, is an almost certain prognostication of rain; both, in fact, afford unquestionable evidence of the electric state of the air. I do not pretend to decide at what particular point in the atmosphere the decomposition of the moisture is effected; but, if a certain amount of moisture be essential to the constitution of the air, and on which point there cannot be a doubt, as fast as it is abstracted by decomposition in one part, it is quite clear that it will be replaced from another. If snow be compressed into a bottle, and put to thaw, it first contracts to about half its size, and, during such contraction, expels all the air; after which water makes its appearance in the bottle. Here then, we have a good illustration of the manner in which the drop of rain is formed. It has been observed to me by one of my chemical friends, that before I could 221 account for the change of colour in clouds, by supposing that it was produced by the absorption of oxygen by carbon, I had to prove, that carbon combined with oxygen at a lower temperature than that of combustion; but it may be observed, that as we are aware of three states in which carbon exists, that require very different amounts of heat to effect the combination with oxygen; viz., the diamond, anthracite, and charcoal, there is no reason why there should not be more; and it is a fact, no less interesting than singular, that the snow water, with which, through Dr. Crichton's kindness, I have been favoured, from Fort William, is now charged with a white filament; and all the particles of black matter I observed in it have disappeared; and this change I did not observe until a few days after uncorking the bottle and taking out a wine-glass full of the water, about a fortnight since; the same filament exists in the snow water from Shooter's-hill, obtained a month since; and when I attempted to remove the carbon from the sides of the jars by means of a knife and water, the whole of it disappeared; but I did not think of preserving the water, not suspecting that anything beyond carbonic acid gas had been formed. We are in no way at a loss to account for the formation of black smoke in a furnace; but why, by throwing a certain amount of air into the furnace at a certain temperature, black smoke becomes white, is a question that has, as yet, I believe, never engaged the attention of philosophers. The phenomenon is certainly not to be attributed to the steam or vapour generated by the combustion of the coal. During some experiments which I made some years since, suming smoke," by proper management I had no difficulty in producing smoke of any colour, from the black to the white; but what constituted the white smoke, I must confess, never entered my head, until I observed the white filament in the snow water from Fort William. 66 on con The clearness of the Canadian sky, during winter, as well as that of Italy during summer, has more than once been made the subject of remark; and in this country we have much less cloudy weather during summer than in winter. In Canada the carbon is brought down with the snow; and during summer, or warm weather, its combination with oxygen is much more rapid than in cold weather. 222 LIST OF DESIGNS FOR ARTICLES OF UTILITY. In "Les Annales de Chimie et de Physiques," of February, 1835, is published a paper, by M. Lecoq, on the formation of hail-stones, that fell in the south and centre of France, in 1835, and after describing the ravages of a storm, some of the stones of which, he states, were as large as hens' and others as big as turkeys' eggs, he remarks-"Entièrement occupé des desastres de l'orage, l'idée ne me vint pas de recueillir des grêlons et d'analyser l'eau, ce que j'ai vivement regretté par la suite, d'autant plus que des personnes très dignes de foi m'ont assuré que plusieurs d'entre eux avaint laisse déposer un résidu noirâtre, d'une odeur désagréable, et que l'eau qui résultait de leur fonte avait une odeur très marquée." Now if snow and hail be both congealed water-and it is supposed that the carbon that is found in snow, is collected in its fall through the atmosphere, it assuredly cannot be the case with hailstones; and the question therefore arises, how the blackish residue that was left by some of these hail-stones got into them: the present theory of rain will certainly not account for the circumstance; but if snow be supposed to be the original form of rain, and a triple compoundand that when partially thawed before parting with its carbon, that it was congealed into hail, all mystery is at once removed, (To be concluded in our next.) LIST OF DESIGNS FOR ARTICLES OF UTILITY REGISTERED UNDER 6 and 7 vic., cap. 65. FROM FEBRUARY 21, TO MARCH 26, 1845. { ............................ Thomas Dray............ Chiswell-street, Finsbury Birmingham Le Capelain and West. 18, Wimbourne-street, Hoxton... Ann Alford............... Newington Butts, Surrey Noel Jeffery Dixon { A. Guhraner De-} A Billacombe, Plymstock, De-) Samuel Rodgett......... Blackburn. Thomas Harwood...... Birmingham... man, and Thomas Showell ............ 40, Ludgate-street, London galvanic hat. Daily indicator. A frog-piece for throwing a power loom out of gear. Butter knife. The tailor's symmetrometer. Jos. Fenn ............. Newgate-street, London ......... Improved coach wrench. George Lamb......... 402 Robt. Walter Wing field.......... { Richard Wallis ......... .... Skinner-street, London. John Perring 85, Strand John Rochford & Son. 35, City quay, Dublin............... Garter fastening. Adjusting galvanic band. Lamp for burning spirit. LIST OF NEW PATENTS. NEW WORKS CONNECTED WITH THE ARTS AND SCIENCES PUBLISHED IN MARCH, INDICATIONS of the CREATOR: Theological Extracts from the History and the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. With a Preface. By the Rev. William Whewell, D.D., F R.S. 5s. 6d. A NOMENCLATURE of COLOURS, HUES, TINTS, and SHADES, applicable to the arts and Natural Sciences, to manufactures and other purposes of general utility. By D. R. Hay, Author of "An Essay on Ornamental Designs," &c. With 210 examples of colours, hues, &c. A SERIES of LETTERS on AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT; with an Appendix. By John Joseph Mechi. With Four Plans of the Farm and Machinery. 3s. A COMPLETE TREATISE on PRACTICAL GEOMETRY and MENSURATION; with numerous Exercises. By James Elliot, formerly Teacher of Mathematics in the Liverpool Mechanics' Institution. 5s. Also, by the same Author, KEY. Containing full demonstrations of the Rules and Solutions of all the more difficult or laborious Exercises; accompanied by Critical and Explanatory Remarks. 6s. BRITISH MANUFACTURES.METALS. By George Dodd. (One of Mr. Knight's Weekly Volumes.) ls. LECTURES on NATURAL PHILOSOPHY and the MECHANICAL ARTS. By Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S., &c. A New Edition, with References and Notes. By the Rev. P. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S., &e. Illustrated by numerous Engravings on copper. Parts I. and II. 2s. 6d. each. An excellent and most welcome edition of one of the best books on Mechanics in the English language, which has been long out of print, and was much wanted. We heartily congratulate the mechanical world on its appearance. We see little of Mr. Kelland in it as yet; but his qualifications for the task of Editor are well known, and leave no doubt of its being well performed. LIST OF ENGLISH PATENTS GRANTED BE TWEEN FEBRUARY 20 AND MARCH 28, 1845, John Baptiste Vallauri, Oxenden-street, Middlesex, for improvements in lamps and wicks. February 24; six months. Joseph Howard, Manchester, for certain in provements in the manufactures of silk plushes, silk velvets, worsted, and other plushes. February 24; six months. William Smith, of Snow-hill, for improvements in gas-meters, and in gas-meter cases. (Being a communication.) March 3; six months. George Miller Clark, Albany street, Regent'spark, for improvements in the construction of lamps and apparatus to be used therewith. (Being a communication.) March 3; six months. Thomas Scholefield, Whitworth, Salford, for certain improvements in machinery for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotten, wool, flax, silk, and similar fibrous materials. March 3; six months. John Tomes, Mortimer-street, for improvements in making artificial teeth, gums, and palates. March 3; six months. Henty Fox Talbot, Locock Abbey, Wilts, for improvements in obtaining motive power, and in the application of motive power to railways. March 3; six months. William Palmer, Clerkenwell, for improvements in pressing tallow and other matters and substances and fabrics. March 3; six months. Samuel Knight, Spotland, near Rochdale, for 223 certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for scouring, washing, cleansing, and other similar purposes. March 3; six months. George Ellins, Droitwich, for certain improvements in manufacturing salt, and for apparatus for manufacturing salt. March 3; six months. William Shaw, Liverpool, for a machine for paging books and numbering documents, consecutively and otherwise; and for printing dates, words, marks, numbers, and impressions, in an expeditious manner. March 3; six months. Alexander Gordon, Wes'minster, for an improvement or improvements in producing motive power, by the action or agency of heat, and in the application of that power to purposes of locomotion or navigation. March 3; six months. Robert Frederick Browne, Knightsbridge, for certain improvements in the construction of chairs and couches. March 8; six months. George Selby, Birmingham, for certain improvements in the manufacture of pipes or tubes of that class or kind which are formed by welding skelps of wrought iron. March 8; six months. John Sykes, of Hollingwood, Laucaster, and Adam Ogden, of Ashton-under-Lyne, for certain improvements in machinery for preparing and cleaning wool, cotton, and similar fibrous material. March 8; six months. Thomas Wright, of Thames Ditton, esquire, for certain improvements in apparatus for the production and diffusion of light. March 10; six months. Thomas Grubb, of Dublin, civil engineer, for improvements in bank notes, and in machinery connected therewith, parts of which are also applicable to cheques, bills, and other documents. March 11; six months. Richard Archibald Brooman, of the Patent-office, 166, Fleet street, gentleman, for certain improvements in the preparation and application of artificial fuels, mastics, and cements. (Being a communication.) March 11; six months. George Fergusson Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, gentleman, George Gwynne, of Regent-street, gentleman, and James Pillans Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, gentleman, for improvements in the manufacture of candles when palm oil is used. March 13; two months. Robert Barr Purbrick, of Tonbridge, engineer, for certain improvements in certain apparatus used in the manufacture of sugar, which apparatus is commonly called sugar pans or coppers. March 18; six months. John Blyth and Alfred Blyth, of Saint Anne, Middlesex, engineers and copartners, and George Parker Hubbuck, of Ponder's end, engineer, for certain improvements in steam engines, steamboilers, and machinery for propelling vessels, which improvements in steam-engines and steamboilers are for the most part applicable to the purposes of steam navigation, but are also applicable to other purposes for which steam-engines or steam-boilers are or may be used. March 13; six months. Abel Siccama, of Finsbury-square, Bachelor of Arts, for improvements in the construction of flutes, and other wind musical instruments. March 18; six months. Moses Poole, of the Patent office, London, for March improvements in lithogrophic presses. 13; six months. Henry Jones, of Broadmead, Bristol, baker, for a new preparation of flour for certain purposes. March 13; six months. Thomas Dunn, of Manchester, engineer, for certain improvements in, or applicable to, turn tables, to be used on or in connection with railways. March 13; six months. Pierre Armand le Comte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinner's-place, Size-lane, Loncon, for improvements in the process of and apparatus for distilling and rectifying March 13; six months. Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for improvements in the manufacture of elastic webs and cords, and in the mode or inodes of manufacturing articles from the same. March 13; six months. John Ainslie, Farmer, Redheugh, near Dalkeith, North Britain, for a certain improvement or certain improvements in the apparatus and arrangements for the manufacture of tiles and similar articles from clay, or other plastic matters. March 13; six months. N. B. This patent being opposed by Caveat, lodged in the Great Seal-office, was not sealed till March 15, but bears date, per order of the Lord Chancellor, on January 18 last, the day it would have been sealed but for the said Caveat. Constant Champion, of the City of London, merchant, for improvements in burning animal charcoal. March 17; six months. Pryce Buckley Williams, of Llegodig, North Wales, gentleman, for certain improvements in the manufacture of artificial stone. March 17; six months. John Sellers, junior, of Burnley, cotton spinner, for certain improvements in looms for weaving. March 17; six months. John Cleaveland Palmer, of East Haddam, Middlesex, gentleman, for certain machinery to be used in manufacturing certain kinds of tools for boring wood, or various other substances. 17; six months. March Henry Grissel, and James Lewis Lane, of Regent's canal iron works, engineers, for certain improvements in weighing machines, and also in steelyards. March 17; six months. Edwin Hill, of Bruce Castle, Tottenham, gentleman, and Warren de la Rue, of Bunhill-row, Middlesex, manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture of envelopes. March 17; six months. William Lloyd Caldecott, of Bath, esquire, for an improvement in the manufacture of soap. March 17; six months. Augustus Coffyn, of Paris, gentleman, for improvements in pumps. March 17; six months. Stephen Perry, of Woodlands place, Saint John's wood, gentleman, and Thomas Barnabas Daft, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for improvements in springs to be applied to girths, belts, and bandages, and improvements in the manufacture of elastic bands. March 17; six months. Thomas Drew, of Saint Austell, Cornwall, chemist, and Edward Stocker, of the same place, merchant, for certain improvements in the production and manufacture of naphtha or other inflammable matter. March 18; six months. Francis Molineaux, of Hackney, gent., for improvements in apparatus for cutting and dividing sugar. March 18; six months. Henry Samuel Rayner, of Alfreton, gentleman, for certain improved means of preventing accidents to carriages on railways and common roads. March 18; six months. Anna Maria Stowell, of Gloucester-place, Islington-green, straw-bonnet manufacturer, and Thomas Little, of Hoxton Old Town, Willow-square, manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture of ladies' bonnets or hats. March 20; six months. Louis Theodore Maillard Rochet, of Lincoln'sInn-fields, gentleman, for improvements in the construction of ovens, applicable also for the purposes of economizing fuel in furnaces generally, (being a communication.) March 20; six months. John Thurston, of Catherine-street, Strand, billiard table manufacturer, for improvements in parts of billiard-tables. March 26; six months. Richard Archibald Brooman, of the Patent Office, 166, Fleet-street, London, gentleman, for a thread made from a substance not hitherto applied to that purpose, and also the application of it to the manufacture of piece goods, ribbons, paper, and other articles, (being a communication.) March 27; six months. Henry Tylor, of the firm of Tylor and Pace, of Hackney, gentleman, for improvements in fabrics used for, and applicable to curtains, screens, blinds, and other like useful purposes. March 28; six months. NOTES AND NOTICES. Jeffery's Marine Glue.-The inefficacy of this composition as a coating for sea-going vessels was predicted from the first in this journal; and one striking proof of it we gave not long ago. Here is another, taken from the Times of the 10th March:-"Sheerness, March 7th.-The St. Lawrence, 46, late the old Shannon, was taken into dock to-day to be coppered. About twelve months, ago this vessel's bottom was covered, after much labour and expense, with Jeffery's marine glue, which has proved in this and former instances here (the case of the Speedwell lighter) a bad substitute for inasmuch as it inefficiently procopper, tects the timbers and forms a very adhesive surface for barnacles, and sea-weed, &c. The quantity and the length of the weed found attached to this vessel's bottom were truly astonishing." The Great Britain.-The following brief extract from Mr. Guppy's Report to the Directors of the Great Western Steam Ship Company will set at rest the doubts of our Liverpool Correspondent "M. O. C."-"The exact time that the vessel was under steam, from the Holmes to Blackwall, was 59 hours, during which the screw made 155,575 revolutions, which, at 25 feet per revolution, gives a distance of 639 knots. Captain Hosken reports to me that the actual distance made by the ship was 567 knots; and that the balance of tides, and still more of wind and weather, was against the vessel. The slip, therefore, barely exceeded 11 per cent., a result which coincides, with singular precision, with that which had been assumed, and which speaks favourably of the form of the screw adopted. The greatest rates the engines have hitherto attained has been 18 revolutions, which gave a speed to the vessel of 123 knots, or 14 miles per hour." Repeal of the Glass Duties.-In consequence of the repeal of the duty on glass, the bottle manufacturers have determined to reduce the price from 428. the gross of 12-dozen bottles, to 26s. the gross. This will make bottles cheap enough, and it will, no doubt, have some effect on the price of the cheaper kinds of liquor sold in bottles, such as ale, porter, cider, soda-water, and so forth; and it will, no doubt, lead to a great increase in the manufacture. Warrington is the principal place in Lancashire in which this branch of the glass trade is carried on, and there the repeal will be very beneficially felt in the increase of work and wages. Another Lancashire town which will also benefit greatly by the repeal of these same duties, is St. Helens, the principal seat of the plate, the German sheet, and the crown glass manufacture. The plate glass of that neighbourhood, which is, we believe, the finest in the world, will become cheaper than at present, though perhaps less so than it is generally expected, owing to the expensive machinery and great amount of skilled labour required in polishing it and preparing it for the market; but the German plate and the crown glass will both of them be manufactured with much less cost when the duty is removed. The former kind of glass has for some time been rising in favour, and as it will be made generally accessible by the repeal of the duty to persons in moderate circumstances, it will be employed in most respectable houses, instead of the crown glass now used. It will certainly add much to the beauty of their appearance, as well as to the pleasure of their inhabitants, as it transmits perfectly correct images of all external objects, instead of the twisted and distorted images transmitted through the common kinds of glass.-Liverpool Times. LONDON: Printed and Published by James Bounsall, at the Mechanics' Magazine Office, No. 166, Fleet-street.-Sold by A. and W. Galignani, Rue Vivienne, Paris ; Machin and Co., Dublin; and W. C. Campbell and Co., Hamburgh. |