Publications Reviewed.

Philips' Illustrated English Grammar. London: G. Philip & Son.

We suppose we must not object to the term illustrated, on account of the little book before us containing some dozen little wood-cuts more or less bearing upon the text, which is adapted for the third standard in the new code regulations. This little book really contains a great deal in the limited space of twenty-four pages, and while being explanatory is by no means diffuse. Some of the explanations are remarkably happy. Under the heading Pronouns we have the following explanation of the use of pronouns—to avoid repeating the same name in the same sentence:

This humorous attempt to make grammar amusing to young children will doubtless be successful in lessening the difficulties and smoothing the path of the little learner. The fun is made quite subservient to the more important object of conveying a knowledge of the subject, and herein differs from the comic grammars, in which everything is sacrificed to the humorous. After a hearty laugh at the fun of this book, the reader cannot fail to acquire a fair knowledge of English grammar. The book has run through three editions, and will doubtless have a steady sale. As a holiday or reward book, it will be prized by the juveniles.

First Historical Reader (British School Series). By A. H. Dick. Gall and Inglis : London and Edinburgh.

This book is intended for the second standard under the new code, and, in regard to simplicity of style, well adapted to very young readers. In some cases this simplicity of style seems carried to excess. We fail to see the superiority of 'It is a rich, rich land,' to the more common 'It is a very rich land.' After a lesson on the supposed appearance of the country in the British period, the advent of the Romans is described, the resistance of Boadicea, the Druids, and next, the coming of the Saxons. We have thence a general sketch of the Saxon and Danish rule, down to the invasion of the Normans, and with the crowning of William this collection of pleasinglywritten lessons ends. We commend the book, which is illustrated with capital engravings and useful maps.

Outline of Paley's Evidences of Christianity.

By the Rev. R. O. Thomas. London: T. Murby.

Notwithstanding numerous modern objections, Paley is still regarded among the greatest and best guides to the defence of revealed religion, and among his works the Evidences' occupy the foremost place. In these days of examinations it is often desirable to obtain a summary of a great work, not merely for the object of gaining a general view thereof, but also to select some

VOL. I.

This forms one of the lectures delivered at the Birkbeck Institution, Southampton Buildings. The author states and briefly discusses the disputed and probably never-tobe-settled theories respecting the source of the internal heat of the earth. Volcanic action is then described in connection, of course, with the leading examples. The overwhelming of Pompeii and Herculaneum by the lava dust, followed by torrents of rain, is detailed, and the superincumbent true lava shown to have been of later date. It is to the mere covering of rooms and cavities by this so-called water-lava (lava d'aqua) that the preservation of so many interesting memorials in these old cities is owing. By a stream of fiery lava all must have been destroyed by the great heat. The author, after noticing the enormous character of the Icelandic eruptions, briefly describes those of the Andes; and next, that of Kilanea, in the Sandwich Islands, the largest volcano in the world. The phenomena of earthquakes is similarly sketched, and the lecture concludes with an attempt to show a connection between coral reefs and volcanic action. The author does not detail the processes of coral development and multiplication, but attributes the formation of coral reefs and the submarine atoll, or submerged circular reef, together with the great depth of many coral rocks-far lower than where coral polypes could live-to a gradual sinking of the land. This subsidence, though slow, is supposed to be owing to a movement of the earth's crust, which produces the slow sinking of Southern Norway and Sweden, while the north of these regions is as slowly rising. Whether the theory of these gradual movements will entirely supersede the belief of ancient great catastrophes no one can determine. But we have said enough to show the interesting and thoughtful character of this lecture.

The gradual growth, if we may so term it, of the coral polyp is probably owing to the quantity of carbonate of lime taken by each individual in the mass of sea-water in which its food is found. The greater portion of this is exuded through the porous body of the polyp, but some portion remains and causes the solid mass gradually to render the exudation of the sea-water difficult. The zoophyte then leaves this lower portion, mounts upward, and so the perpetual growth proceeds until the surface of the ocean is reached.

Political Economy Reading Book. By R. H.

Inglis Palgrave. London: National Society.

We do not know of any book in which the principles of political economy are presented in a more agreeable form than in the little volume before us. In a series of detached extracts, interspersed with suitable poetical quotations, we have a fair outline of the elementary features of economic science. When we mention that these extracts are taken from, or founded upon, such writers as Mrs. Fawcett, M. Bastiat, Mr. Stanley Jevons, and M. Bloch, the soundness of the opinions will be understood. Among others, we have extracts from Defoe, Cobbett, Franklin, and the ever popular Evenings at Home, together with modern writers, judiciously bearing upon the points at issue. The consecutive connectedness of the subject suffers, it is true, from this mode of treatment, but

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the liveliness and readableness of the book are greatly increased thereby. The style, though of course varied, is, on the whole, well within the grasp of intelligent juveniles. The more recondite matters of rent, co-operation and other more advanced topics are not touched upon in these capital introductory lessons, which are calculated not only to please but to influence the minds of youthful readers, and prepare them to resist, if needful, attempts to regard apparent class-interests as superior to the general welfare.

It is remarkable that few writers on Political Economy excel such French authors as Bastiat and the more modern M. Bloch, largely quoted by Mr. Palgrave, while the French, as a nation, are disposed to submit to the fallacies of protection and to sacrifice the general good to the seeming welfare of a few interested producers. But we ought not to forget that our free-trade policy is little more than a quarter of a century old, and that it is even now threatened by ignorant attacks from interested sections. It is questionable whether the mass of our people understand clearly the wisdom of commercial freedom and the sophisms of restrictive efforts. It is, further, doubtful whether the great mass of our operatives are aware of the benefits that accrue to all from increase of produce, and whether they are not infatuated with the notion that the workman's interest is to restrain rather than increase productiveness. These and similar errors, of course, need but to be fairly stated to be exploded. But they have not been brought before the face of the working classes generally, and hence the prevalent notions that the less a workman does the more remains for him to do. This poisonous principle is widespread among our operatives. Generally speaking, our workmen are not lazy, but they fully regard it as due to the general interests of their order not to do more than they possibly can in the way of productive work, and to shackle the outcome of productiveness by every possible expedient. Mr. Stanley Jevons combats these fallacies in an admirable chapter on The fallacy of making work, and shows clearly that not only is the general welfare of the community enhanced, but that wages are also increased by increasing the produce of labour, and not by decreasing the produce. Nothing, we apprehend, is more needful in the way of education than to enable our schoolboys to form accurate conclusions on economic science. This book will admirably help them to do this, and carry on the work which was introduced and energetically developed as a subject for ordinary school instruction by the indefatigable and philanthropic efforts of the late William Ellis.

A Short and Complete Exposition of the French Verbs, and Rules of Genders of French Nouns. By one of the Professors of French, Downside College, Bath. 50 pp. sewn. London Stewart and Co.

This unpretentious little manual, which forms part of Stewart's Educational Series, is in no respect worse, and in many respects very much better than its all too numerous predecessors. One of the main points which distinguishes it is that the Preface is seven lines instead of seven pages. It is not easy to underrate the comfortable feeling which this fact engenders. Nevertheless, truth requires that we should confess that as yet we have failed to perceive any adequate reason for the books existence. It cannot be urged that there is no French Grammar in the market, for a fresh one appears every month. Nor can very great novelty or very striking execution be pleaded, for there is neither the one nor the other. Let us, however, pass this point, and assuming the questionable right of raison d'etre, proceed to note the main features of the book.

Firstly, then, we have the assimilation of the French and English scheme of verb-tenses. It is doubtful whether this, and the consequent death of the time

honoured preterite, is an alteration which will commend itself to Frenchmen. We, however, think it might have been carried a little farther still. Such a name as 'Past Perfect Anterior,' for example, is an eyesore, inasmuch as, with all its lofty title, if it means anything at all, that meaning is certainly not what was intended. This is a comparatively small matter, but not without importance. We will now confess at once that this, the mainstay of the work, is so carefully and satisfactorily done that we have no fault to find with it. Perhaps it would be an improvement if faillir, absoudre, luire, and traire were moved from the list of Irregular Verbs to the list of Defective Verbs. Perhaps, too, it is foolish to insert obsolete forms. English grammars, of an elementary nature for instance, are rarely disfigured by such creatures as pight (pitched), holpen (helped), shope (shaped), arrove (arrived). As it is equally unnecessary to burden French with je faux, j'absolus, je luisis, etc. However this may be, it is a decided improvement to clearly mark the conditional as a mood and not a tense, and to point out the analogy which subsists between the third and fourth conjugations, an analogy so close, indeed, as to justify our author in making one of two. 'In this treatise the verbs in -oir have been classified among the irregular verbs. The conjugation in -oir differs from that in -re only in the form of the indefinite infinitive.'

It is with the second part of the work, however, that we find most fault. There are some really serious omissions, which we proceed to notice. In the first list Gender known by Meaning,' 'Days (not holy-days), months and seasons,' are given as universally masculine, whereas la mi-août and la mi-juin are certainly feminine. Again Names of Winds' (with of course the usual exceptions-mousson, brise, bise, tramontane), are entirely omitted. If for nothing else than retaining similarity with Latin it is desirable to insert them.

In another list amour, delics, and orgue are given as masculine in the singular, feminine in the plural, while no notice is taken of the idiom which makes the latter two masculine in the plural after the expression un de.

And, finally, in the list on the concluding page of the book there are at least thirty omissions, of which five only are so important as to render their absence culpable. We refer to the different significations, according to gender, of guide, merci, palme, solde, triomphe.

To conclude, the survey of this book is absolutely refreshing after all the nonsense of some of its predecessors. True, at the best it is a weary business, which we conclude with heartfelt satisfaction; but, to our mind, the French Grammar is yet unpublished that is other than weary.

Murby's Imperial Reader. Book IV. London: Thomas Murby.

We have not seen the other volumes of this series, but if they are as meritorious as this Fourth one before us we should conclude they would have an extensive sale. This volume contains a judicious admixture of the didactic and instructive with the lively sketches and tales that are sure to interest young readers. The book opens with one of these tales-a story of a fox-in which Reynard narrates his methods of escape when pursued by the hounds. A lively lesson on a plum pudding shows the need of the efforts of many to supply very simple wants. Then comes A chat with the Ostrich, in which the natural history of the big bird is learned by its telling its own tale, as did the fox. This taking method of letting animals and objects speak for themselves, is carried out in several lessons in this book, and in none better than the pretty story of Pink Shell and Sea Weed, in which the folly of pride is kindly reproved. The lesson on Chalk is valuable from a geological point of view. Sketches of the Ancient Britons and others on history are agreeably interspersed with good poetical extracts, many of which are new, and the others old favourites. The illustrations are by no means scanty, and in all cases appropriate.

The Victoria Table Book. 48 pp. Ormskirk : T. Hutton.

In addition to the tables needed for the ever-varying code, this cheap Table Book contains a mass of valuable information.

Invariable Stocking Scale. By Miss Heath. London: Griffith and Farran.

This 'scale' is printed on extra stout paper, 22 inches by 30 inches. A drawing of the stocking the full size of the sheet is given, with easy instructions applicable to any size of stocking, or sort of wool used. An expert 'knitter' assures us that the instructions which appear in very large type could not be improved.

Twenty Minutes' Talk with Parents. London Isbister.

The 'friend of education' who has penned this sensible essay is no novice at his work. Every page-we had almost said every sentence-reveals so keen an insight into elementary school life, that it is hard to believe anyone not engaged in the actual work of education could produce it. The writer shows that it is to the advantage of the parent, as well as the child, that the latter should have a good schooling,' and answers conclusively the silly complaints of the croakers who aver that we are over-educating the working-classes. The pamphlet is full of the best advice, some of which is pointless now that Mr. Mundella's 'proposals' have appeared. If School Boards could scatter it broadcast they would do good service.

Early Glimpses. By J. R. Blakiston. 96 pp. pp. fcap. 8vo. London: Griffith and Farran. This is an attractive book-one that children will delight to use; the binding is neat, the type bold and clear, the illustrations admirable, and the language-a most important recommendation, by the way-well within the grasp of a good Standard I. class. As an example of Mr. Blakiston's simple, yet vigorous style, we give the opening paragraph of the chapter on water :

'Though a strong friend, water is a stronger foe-a slave that sometimes turns and rends his master. Turned to steam, it bursts boilers, knocks down houses, and kills men. Turned to ice, it cracks strong pipes, and rends rocks.'

We deem it an excellent first Geographical Reader.

Universal Instructor. Part XI. London: Ward, Lock and Co.

An excellent part of Messrs. Ward and Lock's now well-known valuable serial.

German Phraseology. 156 pp.

German Prepositions. 151 pp. London: Crosby Lockwood and Co.

These two new books are useful additions to Lockwood's cheap and elementary school series. They furnish excellent work supplementary to the ordinary text-books on German.

A Complete Course of English Grammar

and Analysis. By David Campbell, Montrose Academy. 156 pp. London: Thomas Laurie. English Grammar is a subject which nowadays is attacked as frequently as French verbs, and with as little provocation. In our opinion, moreover, it is, of all subjects, the one of which the system of elementary teaching at present in vogue can be least improved. To assert, therefore, that we heaved a sigh on meeting with this newest effort is scarcely to do justice to our feelings. Not that our author has failed in his object; quite the contrary; but that the attainment of that object is, we humbly think, utterly unnecessary.

The book opens with various pithy remarks, mostly borrowed, on the teaching of Grammar. We take one from Dr. Abbott-...The main object of a teacher teaching English Grammar to English children-viz., to teach not so much what as why.' With this we thoroughly agree, but our author, if we may judge from his preface, is only a partial believer, else he would scarcely have written the following:-'As this is a practical exercise-book for scholars, it has been deemed advisable to omit many interesting and philological facts. ......Fascinating as such information is, in any shape, it is believed that the freshness it acquires in oral teaching brightens the lesson for both class and teacher.' Such reasoning is good only at the surface. Its result in the present case is a book which is as irremediably dull as a fashionable novel or a French grammar written by a native. We maintain that derivations, not classical merely, but Anglo-Saxon, are the very essence of Grammar, that in fact Grammar becomes hopelessly dry bones without them.

There is but one excuse which could justify the course Mr. Campbell has adopted. His own, that this information acquires remarkable freshness at the hands of an ordinary teacher, is paltry, even if true. Besides this, so far as our judgment extends, it ought, if it applies to any one branch of education, to apply to all. We can understand our author's reasoning, however, on the supposition that he has meant his book for the youngest board-school classes. It this be the case, why add a chapter on Shakesperian English? Surely it is not customary to read Shakespere before knowing how to speak correctly.

We do not like the definitions here given. Nine out of ten are seriously faulty, and we should be at the trouble of pointing out these faults if we were not of the opinion that in Grammar definitions are either useless hairsplitting and haggling, or wordy nonsense, standing, to an eager aspirant for knowledge, in much the same relation as a piece of unconscionably tough leather does to a hungry man.

But let us not give our readers the impression that the workmanship of the book is bad. One of his objects is really well attained—that given in a quotation from Mr. Fitch.

'One good test of a grammar, or delectus, or manual of any kind is this: Does it, as soon as it has helped the student to know something, instantly set him to do something which requires him to use that knowledge, and to show that he has really acquired it?'

Judged by this criterion Mr. Campbell is almost too perfect. No sooner has any rule been given than the unlucky urchin under this guidance is pounced down upon for example after example, until the number of changes rung on a simple series cannot but have a monotonous effect.

An appendix, or summary of the book is added. Its main recommendation in the eyes of the schoolboy will be one which was probably far enough_from_the author's intention-its evident adaptability to the process of cramming.

Handbook to Types of Nations. London: W. and A. K. Johnston.

Very recently we noticed the admirable decorative schoolroom sheets, entitled 'Types of Nations,' issued by the above firm. We have now before us a descriptive handbook to these Types.' All teachers will find it useful, but more particularly those whose good fortune it is to have their walls adorned with the life-like pictures which are herein described. There are chapters on the Esquimaux, Negro, Australian Aborigines, Patagonian, Hindoo and Chinese.

Domestic Economy Test Cards. In three stages. London: W. and R. Chambers.

We have pleasure in noticing this carefully prepared series of cards; all the more so because we are frequently asked by our friends to recommend a really good set of Domestic Economy Questions.

These three packets fully meet the requirements of the three stages. On each card there are six different questions, and in each packet thirty different cards. The cards are enclosed in a plain, serviceable cloth case, and may be had at the modest figure of a shilling per packet. Chambers' Domestic Economy Test Cards are the best we know.

The Marlborough Arithmetic Test Cards. For Standards II. to VI. By T. B. Ellery. London: W. and R. Chambers.

In these days of 'catch' questions and variable standards of examination, no wise teacher will confine himself to one, or even two sets of Test Cards. Mr. Ellery's sums afford excellent practice on examination work. There is a judicious admixture of problems, many of which bear a strong likeness to those actually set by Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. Another good feature is that the answers to each item of the Bills of Parcels in Standard V. are given separately. The card upon which the questions have been printed is far too thin and flimsy, and we are afraid will not last long. Thin card may be admissible when but seldom used, as in the specific subjects: for Arithmetic in daily use it should be stout. The Historical School Geography. By Charles Morrison, M.A., etc. London Simpkin and Marshall.

This book is worthy of a place among the leading textbooks on geography for Pupil Teachers and Students. It combines the leading features of history connected with the more important geographical facts, and herein differs from most geographical text-books, in which history is only occasionally introduced. Another feature of Dr. Morrison's book is the direction given in regard to the pronunciation of local names. These are not so extensively given as we could wish, but we are glad to see those that are affixed, together with many wearing their etymological explanations. Another addition in this book beyond the ordinary run of geographies is in the biographical summaries, containing the names of the most eminent men, with a list of their principal works, or the principal events in which they took a leading part.

The introduction treats as usual of (1) Mathematical geography and (2) Physical; the latter being remarkably well written, and with clear yet concise explanations. Among recent authorities the researches of the Challenger are quoted. The explanation of the tides is hardly satisfactory. Although a very small body (the moon) compared with the sun, she is so much nearer to the earth than the sun, that she exerts a force six times greater on the surface of the waters than the sun does.' Now the tides are not owing to the amount of attraction exerted by the moon on the waters, (which amount of attraction is much less than that of the sun, notwithstanding the moon's proximity to the earth,) but to the differences of attraction exerted by the moon on different sides of the earth. In other words, the earth's diameter, 8,000 miles, forms so important a proportion of the moon's distance, 240,000, that the moon attracts the side of the earth about 6th stronger than the opposite or remote side of the earth. Consequently, the waters rise in a tidal wave under the moon from being more strongly attracted than those nearer the centre (of the surface) of the earth, while on the opposite side of the earth the waters fall back, being less attracted than the central waves. diameter of the earth, indeed, forms no more appreciable proportion in comparison with the sun's immense distance, 92,000,000 miles, than does one step in regard to a building ten miles distant, and therefore the sun may be said to attract all sides of the earth alike. It is only by these differences of attraction that the tidal wave on the side of the earth remote from the moon, can be accounted for. More care is given by Dr. Morrison in explaining the distribution of man, plants, and animals, than is bestowed in most geographies. The same may be said in regard to the atmospheric and other influences on climate;

The

indeed the chapter on the AIR is a model of succinct accuracy. We cannot also speak too highly of the introductory chapter generally descriptive of Europe, which is not only complete, but presents several matters in an attractive and novel manner. Mr. Morrison speaks of the English as belonging to the Saxon race, with a slight mixture of Danes and Normans,' a conclusion pretty well dispelled by the investigations of Huxley, Dr. Nicholas, and many other leading authorities. In the description of the various countries of the earth, we have much to commend, and not a little to mark as evincing very careful investigation and happiness of expression. In regard to Ireland-the puzzle of the wisest, and almost despair of the most hopeful, Mr. Morrison remarks, 'Were it not for the drinking customs which still prevail, political agitation, and religious partizanship, the Irish people would not be inferior to any European nationality.' To this we may add the tendency of the Irish to expect to have everything done for them. They ask for grants to provide boats and nets to prosecute their fisheries; grants for harbours; grants for packet stations; grants to enable the tenant to buy the land he cultivates, as if grants were obtained from some exhaustless mine of wealth, and needed only a Parliamentary vote to apply, forgetting that all these grants are to be obtained only from the taxes paid by the community at large. In describing the British possessions, the cession of the Transvaal to the Boers is named, and other instances occur of the infor mation being brought down to the present date. Prince Edward's Island should be corrected to Prince Edward Island, although it is not unlikely that the latter will soon yield to the former term.

us.

beyond the dry compendium of names and mere skeletonAltogether Dr. Morrison's book is a decided advance statements that characterize many geographical textbooks. It is high time that many of these gave way, for such thoughtful and well-written manuals as that before We should suggest a more extended explanation of local names, which should include not only those of countries and towns, but also of mountains-frequently given in Dr. Morrison's book-and rivers. These names of natural features generally carry us back to the earliest known history and condition of a country, before successive races gave their own names to the lands they conquered, and named their towns and cities from their own vocabularies. The names of mountains, rivers, and other natural features were, however, generally adopted by new settlers, and remained unchanged by them. Hence most river-names throughout Europe can be traced back, through Gaelic and other Celtic channels, to the Sanscrit, in which even a letter was often highly significant.

The names of our Avon, Ouse, Kennet, Rother, are plainly thus traceable, and so also are the great majority of other river-names, not only throughout Great Britain, but wherever the first branches of the Sanscrit, the earliest forms of European speech, spread. Dr. Morrison has, we think, done wisely in placing these etymological explanations as foot-notes in preference to collecting them at the end, where they have less chance of receiving attention. Many names are explained by Dr. Morrison with the text, as Ceylon (the island of lions), Hong-kong (Sweet Water), Holland (Hollow Land), Malta (Melita, from mel, honey), Turkestan (the land of the Turks), etc. All these help much to associate sound with sense, and to invest geographical names with interest. The following remark under the head EDUCATION (in England and Wales) will interest our readers: It is rather behind (that of) some other countries, but is now rapidly advancing. In addition to voluntary primary schools and private adventure, middleclass schools, NATIONAL BOARD SCHOOLS have now been established in every district where education was found to be defective. It is compulsory on all children between five and thirteen years, and free to the children of all parents too poor to pay the prescribed low fees. Religious instruction is given to all children whose parents do not object to receive it.'

An Easy and Rapid Method for Learning French Regular and Irregular Verbs. By A. E. Ragon. 54 pp. London: Longmans.

On first sight we were very much pleased with this newest attempt to popularise the French verbs. The publishers' names were sufficient guarantee that the book was nicely printed. This was one fact very much in its favour, for, as a matter of experience, we could name several who think no dress too ugly, no type too unimpressive for such a bald and antiquated subject as ours. Again, the design of the book seemed new, and this was still another argument in its favour. As a rule, too, the author seemed to be almost able to speak English. Of course, now and then he talks in a decidedly un-English manner, witness for example: 'Now, it requires only to know.. to acquire, etc.' Still, such a moderate example as this, is the purest Ruskinian in comparison with some specimens that we have been favoured with in the past.

....

But we must confess, that notwithstanding these prepossessions, our further investigation scarcely supported the judgment which we formed at first sight. We will try to give our readers an account of the new system along with the arguments for and against. Verbal endings are, by our author, divided into 'particular and general.' 'The general endings are, with a few exceptions, those forms which terminate every French verb, regular or irregular ; the particular endings, placed before the general endings, mark the various inflections which generally divide verbs into four divisions, called conjugations, or indicate that the verb is irregular.' The system will now be obvious. The general verbal endings are first learnt. These form a fairly easy table on p. 4, with about twenty-five exceptions to the rules there given. The next step is to grasp the ordinary rules for the derivation of any given tense from the primitive tenses. Next, to commit to memory 'which particular ending is used for each principal part, or at which particular part none is wanted.' This done our education is complete.

At first sight the plan is plausible, and not without a certain sort of ingenuity; but on investigation, we believe that the labour required will be found to be almost as great as before, while it is of a kind which is far less fruitless than previously. Of course, for regular verbs, it is plain sailing, and very easy too. For each conjugation, supposing the first table known, we have only five endings to learn and the whole business is done. But it is with the irregular verbs that we get into difficulties, which is a pity, because it is for their sake only that we embarked with our author. Let us take the verbs, avoir, falloir, mouvoir, pleuvoir, savoir, surseoir, valoir. Surely, we think with these, which are so much al ke in form, we shall fare well. But what is the fact? We are taught to look at the verbs thus :-a-voi-r, f-alloi-r, m-ouvoi-r, pl-euvoi-r, s-avoi-r, surs-eoi-r, va-loi-r. This is horrifying. How about etymology? Here in valoir the is divorced from the val, just as if it were no part of the stem. Not to speak of the abomination of uni-litteral roots and many other staring anomalies. And what is gained by all this? Scarcely clearness, for it is most misleading. Nor shortness, for where in our old method we learnt the parts separately, here we have to learn arbitrary endings, for which mnemonics become impossible.

Thus we cannot but speak unfavourably of the book as a whole. The regular verbs are not perfectly done, nor can they be while it is permissible to use such vague generalities as-Verbs in eler, eter,. . . . when sometimes I and t are doubled before e.' As for the irregular verbs any who buy this book should, in our opinion, leave out all this nonsense about particular endings,' and they will then find it a very serviceable guide through a subject which never appeared to us to present half the difficulties, the existence of which Frenchmen are accustomed to assume.

59. Describe some of the most important natural substances in which oxygen is contained, and explain the preparation of the gas from the black oxide of manganese. June, 1865.

Firstly, oxygen is found in a free state in the atmosphere, forming about one-fifth of its volume. Air is a mixture of gases, chiefly nitrogen and oxygen. It is perfectly transparent and without smell.

Again, water is another important natural substance containing oxygen. Water at the ordinary temperature is liquid, but easily assumes the solid or gaseous form. When seen in small quantities it is colourless, but when observed in large quantities it has a bluishgreen colour. When pure it is tasteless. It dissolves with great readiness very many substances.

Oxygen also forms part of many compounds, both animal and vegetable, as wood, sugar, and the flesh and fat of animals. It is so widely distributed in nature that it is said to constitute one-half of the weight of the earth. It also forms the greatest part by weight of water.

When oxygen is wanted in great quantities, it is usual to prepare it from the black binoxide or dioxide of manganese (MnO). The mineral manganese is strongly heated in an iron mercury bottle, fitted with an iron exit-tube. Yet, however strongly the mineral be heated, only one-third of its oxygen is given off. The equation expressing the reaction is :3(MnO2) MnO4 + O2 Manganic Trimanganic Oxygen. tetroxide.

dioxide.

=

60. Describe the preparation of oxygen from chlorate of potash. Give symbols of the decomposition.-June, 1864-June, 1867.-Jan., 1881.

The chlorate of potash or potassic chlorate is first powdered and dried, in order to prevent decrepitation and deposition of moisture in the tube, placed in a test-tube fitted with a cork and exit-tube, and carefully heated; the salt first melts and appears to boil from the evolution of oxygen. A high temperature is required to obtain the maximum of oxygen, when potassic chloride remains in the tube.

*The signs I, II, III, IV., . . ., placed to the right of a symbol, indicate the valency of an element.