Torrid Zone, lying between the tropics; the two Temperate Zones, between the tropics and the polar circles; and the two Frigid Zones, between the polar circles and the poles.

The Zenith is that point in the heavens which is directly over the head of the observer.

The Nadir is that point in the heavens directly opposite to the zenith. It is under the feet of the observer, and in the opposite hemisphere.

An Artificial Globe is a representation of the form of the earth, with its divisions into land and water.

A Map is a representation of the earth, or of a part of it, on a plane surface.

A Lagoon is a shallow lake, generally salt, formed on low lands by the overflow of rivers, or of the sea.

Antipodes. A word of Greek origin, signifying literally those whose feet are over against each other. As applied to geography, the term means the inhabitants of any two opposite points of the globe, or in other words, the dwellers at the opposite extremities of any diameter of the earth.

Atoll. A circular reef, or low island, surrounding a basin of sea water. It is open to the sea at one point. Ex.: The Laccadive Islands in the Indian Ocean.

Avalanches. The sudden fall of accumulated masses of snow.

Canal. An artificial channel for water, formed for purposes of drainage, irrigation, or navigation.

Cañon. A narrow gorge between two mountains with steep precipitous sides, and through which a river runs. The name is confined to a gorge in the basin of the Colorado in North America.

Climate. The causes affecting climate are:-1. Latitude. 2. Altitude. 3. Proximity to the sea. 4. Distribution of land and water. 5. Mountain chains. 6. The prevailing winds.

Coral Reefs. These are formed by little animals called coral-polyps, which secrete a slimy skeleton, and, growing together in millions, they form great reefs of solid rock. It is by the growth of these animals that the wonderful rings of coral rock or coral islands are formed in the middle of the ocean.

Cul de Sac. A narrow valley or glen, so formed as to have only one opening into it.

Currents. Constant, periodical, or variable movements of the waters of the ocean.

Cyclone, Hurricane, or Tornado. Revolving winds which occur in the West Indies and in the Indian Ocean. They revolve as they advance, destroying everything that opposes their course. Typhoons is the name given to these winds in the Chinese Sea.

Delta, from the Greek letter A; a term applied to alluvial tracts between the forked branches or mouths of a river. Ex. The Nile Delta. Dunes. Sand-hills along the coast of the north of France. Etesian Winds are north-east winds which in July and August blow across the Mediterranean towards the heated surface of Africa.

Fauna. A term used to express the animals of any particular district or region.

Flora. A term used to express the vegetation of any particular region.

Geysers. Springs of hot water in Iceland, the jet sometimes rising to a great height; they are situated about 23 miles from the volcano Hecla.

Glaciers. Moving masses of snow-ice.

Gulf Stream. A current of warm water, which, issuing from the coast of Mexico, pours in a north-east direction across the Atlantic Ocean towards the shores of Britain, France, Norway, Iceland, and Spitzbergen.

Haff. The proper name of three estuaries on the southern coast of the Baltic.

Harmattan. An extremely dry wind which prevails in Guinea and Senegambia on the west coast of Africa. If it continues for a few days it destroys all vegetation.

Hurricanes. Storms of excessive violence which occur chiefly in the West Indies.

Icebergs. Mountains or huge masses of ice floating in the sea. Khamsin. A hot south wind which prevails in Egypt after the vernal equinox, and continues about 50 days, as indicated by the

name.

Knots. Very lofty plains among the Andes, where the different ranges of these mountains come together.

Landes. Extensive sandy or marshy tracts covered with heath on the coast of the Bay of Biscay.

Llanos. Large plains in the basin of the Orinoco, some covered with trees, others with grass, and some barren.

Monsoons are periodical winds which blow six months from the N.E., and six months from the S.E., over the East Indian Seas. The name signifies "season."

Moraine. The line of blocks and gravel found at the bottoms and edges of glaciers.

Pampas. Large treeless plains in the basin of the La Plata, South America, on which immense herds of horses and cattle feed; they extend from 15° S. lat. to the southern limits of the continent.

The Rainless Regions are:-In the Old World, the Desert of Sahara, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Beluchistan, the Desert of Shamo or Gobi, and the table-land of Thibet and Mongolia. In the New World, the plateau of Mexico, with parts of Guatemala and California.

Sargasso Sea. In the centre of the Gulf Stream, off the coast of America, there is a large body of nearly calm water, known as the Sargasso Sea; this is thickly studded over with a brownish weed called Sargasso.

Savannahs, or Prairies. Grassy plains on both sides of the Mississippi, North America.

Selvas. Forest plains of the Amazon.

Sierras. Ranges of mountains which rise out of the central plateau of Spain.

Simoom or Samiel. A hot wind that prevails in the desert of Arabia, very frequently fatal to travellers.

Sirocco. A burning wind, which blows from Africa across the Mediterranean Sea to the south of Europe. It is called the Solano in Spain, the Föhn in Switzerland, and the Samiel in Turkey.

M

Snow line. A line at certain elevations above the level of the ocean beyond which snow never melts.

Springs. Sources of water within the earth. They are of three kinds: Land springs, artesian springs, and mineral springs.

Land Springs are formed by gravel or sand resting on some close rock. The rain easily sinks in at once and forms pools in the holes or irregularities of the rock. This may be seen on a small scale at the sea shore.

Artesian Springs or Wells are formed by sinking or boring a well through an upper impermeable covering to a bed of water in the interior of the earth. The water will rise to find its level, and if the source be higher than the well, the water will rise to or even above the surface. Ex.: at Artois.

Mineral Springs take their name from the mineral matter which the water absorbs in its passage from the interior of the earth. Ex.: Bath, Tunbridge, etc.

Steppes. Open and treeless plains in Russia and Central Asia.

Tides are produced by the attractive force of the sun and moon, particularly the latter." They take place twice in about every 24 hours. The moon attracts the particles of water nearest to her; she also attracts the earth more than the water on the further side of the earth; consequently the water near the moon, together with the earth, is drawn away from the water on the opposite side. When the sun acts in conjunction with the moon, Spring Tides are the result, and when in opposition, Neap Tides.

Trade Winds. About the equator the sun shines with intense heat all the year round. The air is constantly heated to a high degree, and streams upwards ascending into currents, but just as the hot air along this central belt mounts up into the higher regions of the atmosphere, the cooler air from north and south flows in along the surface to supply its place. This constant streaming of air into equatorial regions forms what are known as the Trude Winds.

Tundras. Low swampy plains in Siberia.

Weald or Wold. A wood or forest, now used to denote a wild or moorish district of country, as the Weald of Kent, the Wolds of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire.

Whirlwind, produced by the meeting of winds blowing from different directions.

GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE LAND.

Eastern Continent or Old World, comprehendingEurope, in the North-West; Asia, East of Europe; Africa, South of Europe.

Western Continent or New World, comprehending -North America, in the North; South America, South-East of North America.

Oceania, comprehending Australia or New Holland, New Zealand.

GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE WATER.

The Atlantic Ocean separates Europe and Africa from America.

Inlets on the East:-The Baltic and Mediterranean Seas; on the West:-Hudson's Bay, Caribbean Sea, and Mexican Gulf.

The Pacific Ocean separates Asia and Australia from America.

It has the Gulf of California on its Eastern shore, and the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the Gulf of Siam on its Western shore.

The Indian Ocean, South of Asia, extends from Africa to Australia.

The inlets in the Indian Ocean are the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea extending into the Persian Gulf, and the Bay of Bengal.

The Northern or Arctic Ocean lies round the North Pole.

It has the White Sea and the Sea of Obi as inlets.

The Southern or Antarctic Ocean lies round the South Pole.

RACES OF MEN.

(1) The Circassian variety occupies the greater part of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. The skin is white, the skull is large, the forehead expanded, teeth vertical, beard large. This variety is also called Aryan and Indo-European.

(2) The Mongolian variety occupies Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia, and detached parts of Northern Europe. The skin is yellow, the skull oblong, forehead receding, nose broad and short, beard thin and scanty.

(3) The Ethiopian variety occupies Central and South Africa and parts of Oceania, and comprehends Negroes, Hottentots, Kaffirs, Papuans, etc. The skin is dark, skull narrow, forehead low, lips thick, hair woolly.

(4) The Malay variety occupies the Malay Peninsula, parts of Oceania, and Madagascar. The skin is brown, the skull high and square, forehead low, nose broad, hair black.

(5) The American variety is found throughout North and South America, and is called American Indian. The skin is copper-coloured, the skull small, cheek-bones high, mouth large, scarcely any beard.

LANGUAGE.

The languages may be classed as follows:-(1) The Aryan or Indo-European languages. The principal divisions of this group are the Teutonic languages, spoken in the British Islands and the British Colonies, Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, and Denmark; the Celtic languages, in parts of Ireland. Wales, and the Highlands of Scotland; the Sclavonic languages, in Russia, Poland, Servia, Bulgaria, etc.; the GrecoLatin languages, in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Greece, and Roumania. The Persian language and many of the lan

guages of Hindostan also belong to this group. The principal extinct Aryan languages are Sanscrit (the old language of Hindostan), ancient Greek, and Latin.

(2) The Semitic languages, of which Arabic still survives. This language is spoken in the Barbary States, Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The ancient Hebrew belongs to this class.

(3) The Tartar or Turanian languages, spoken in Turkey, Hungary, Finland, in Central and Northern Asia, and Japan.

(4) The Monosyllabic languages, spoken in China, Thibet, and Further India.

(5) The Malay languages, in Oceania.

(6) The languages of Africa, south of the Desert.

(7) The American languages, spoken by the aborigines of the New World.

RELIGIONS.

The religions of the human race may be divided into two classes:

I. Those characterized by belief in one God (monotheistic).

II. The various forms of idolatry (polytheistic).

There are three forms of religious belief which recognise one God:

(1) The Christian religion, embracing the Roman Catholics, the Protestants, and the Greek Church. (2) Mohammedanism, the religion of the followers of Mohammed, an Arabian who lived in the seventh century. They inhabit Turkey, Arabia, South-western Asia, North Africa, and part of India. (3) The Jews, who originally lived in Palestine, but are now scattered over the world. They reject the New Testament, and do not believe in Christ.

The principal forms of Polytheism are Brahminism, Buddhism, and Fetishism. (1) Brahminism is the religion of the great majority of the Hindoos. They recognise one Supreme Being and an immense number of inferior deities. They believe in the transmigration of the soul after death, into the bodies of other men or inferior animals.

(2) Buddhism has its headquarters in Thibet, but extends through China, Further India, and Japan. The Buddhists, like the Brahmins, believe in the transmigration of souls.

(3) Fetishism prevails among the savages of Africa, America, and Polynesia. This lowest form of idolatry is characterized by belief in charms, and the worship of the lower animals.

The Governments of the world have been divided into empires, kingdoms, and republics.