parts of the tune are repeated, so that it is not so long as it looks. If you find the "second" part of the tune low for your voice, pitch the key-note a little higher. Be careful to point on the modulator from memory. Remember that every tune, thus thoroughly learnt, becomes a power by which others will be more easily mastered. You need not attempt the words yet. When you do, let those printed in CAPITALS be sung with increased force and loudness of voice, and those in italics with increased softness. [The square note is used to indicate the place of DOH at the beginning of the staff, but it is not to be sung. The place of DоH, being thus once marked, is not afterwards indicated by a square note as in previous exercises. The pupil must learn to keep the place of Doн in his mind. The notes with a tail to the stem are to be sung half as long as those without the tail.]

This last illustration, however, is not strictly correct, because it does not preserve the distinct sound of the French u, which sound, especially in combination, many Frenchmen themselves are not careful to preserve. In common conversation, this diphthong sounds like an English w.

In French words commencing with qua, the diphthong ua has two different sounds. In some the sound of ua would be illustrated by the letters koua or k'wa, but in others by ka, viz. :— Quadrangle is pronounced kouah-dranh-gl', or k'wah-dranh-gl. Quadrature, a geometrical phrase, is pronounced kouah-drature, or k'wah-dra-ture. But the same word, used as a term of horology, is pronounced kah-dra-ture.

Quai, a wharf, is pronounced kay.

Quaiche, a naval term, meaning a ketch, is pronounced kaish. Until the learner has become really familiar with the French language, the surest way to be correct in the use and pronunciation of words commencing with qua, will be to consult a dictionary.

UE.-Name, we. Sound: this diphthong occurs most frequently as the final letters of French words, after the consonants g and q, in which cases both are silent.

When final, and before other consonants, they have the usual sound of the French u.

UI.-Name, we. Sound: this diphthong has the combined sound of the French u, together with that of French i, which latter is like the letters ee in the English word bee.

71. The sound of am and an, em and en, im and in, is represented by the letters anh, and is like the sound of the letters an in the English words an-chor and can-ker, with an effort to speak through the nose, as it is termed. But be particular to avoid the sound of English g in all nasals.

There is, strictly speaking, a real difference between the nasal sounds of an, en, and in, but it is so slight, and so peculiarly delicate, that scarcely any one not a native Frenchman can detect and describe it intelligibly. In common reading and conversation, these nasals above-mentioned have but one sound, viz., that which has been assigned them in our previous Lessons. It is considered correct enough for all practical purposes. When extraordinary nicety of pronunciation is demanded, as is always the case in using the language of prayer, and in holy and devotional language, the a of the nasals am and an should be pronounced broader than the e or i in the nasals em, en, im, and in. In the former case, let the a have the sound of ah; in the latter, the sound of a in the word fat.

The sound of om and on is represented by the letters onl and is like the sound of the letters on in the English word conquer, uttered with an effort to speak through the nose, as it is termed.

The sound of um and un is represented by the letters unh, and is like the sound of the letters un in the English word un-cle, uttered with an effort to speak through the nose.

Concerning these nasals, remember these two general rules,

viz.:

Rule 1.-Single m's and n's followed by vowels are not nasals.

Rule 2.-When the m and n are doubled, the nasality is destroyed.

Exceptions to this last Rule will appear in their proper places. We now proceed to illustrate these nasal sounds, commencing with examples in which the sounds am and an are found.

In the third, ein, ei is equivalent only to a in sound; hence, substituting a in the place of ei in the combination ein, we have an, whose sound is represented by anh.

Again, ean and oan have each the nasal sound represented by the letters anh.

Aen in the proper name Caen have also the sound of an, represented by the letters anh; hence the word Caen is pronounced Kanh.

The following will afford good examples in illustration of the nasal vowel sounds em and en:

Like the sound of e mute.

6. The article le, preceded by the preposition à, is contracted into au before a noun masculine commencing with a consonant, or an h aspirate; and into aux before a plural noun [§ 13 (8)]. Allez-vous au bal ou au marché? Do you go to the ball or to the market? 7. À l'eglise means at or to church; à l'école, at or to school. Nous allons à l'église et à l'école, We go to church and to school.

8. Quelque part means somewhere, anywhere; nulle part, nowhere.

Votre neveu où est-il ?

Il est quelque part,

Il n'est nulle part,

Where is your nephew?

He is somewhere.

He is nowhere.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

1. Où est-ce que je vais ? 2. Vous allez chez le chapelier. 3. Est-ce que je vais à la banque ? 4. Vous allez à la banquo et au concert. 5. Est-ce que je coupe votre bois? 6. Vous ne coupez ni mon bois ni mon habit. 7. Est-ce que je porte un chapeau vert? 8. Vous ne portez pas un chapeau vert, vous en portez un noir. 9. Votre écolier va-t-il quelque part ? 10. Il perruquier ? 12. Il ne va nulle part. 13. Ne portez-vous point va à l'église, à l'école et au marché. 11. Ne va-t-il pas chez le des bottes de cuir rouge? 14. J'en porte de cuir noir. 15. N'allez-vous pas chez le banquier? 16. Je ne vais pas chez lui; il est absent depuis hier. 17. Vient-il à la banque ce matin? 18. Il a l'intention d'y venir, s'il a le temps.* 19. A-t-il envie d'aller au concert? 20. Il a grande envie d'y aller, mais il n'a pas de billet. 21. Demeurez-vous dans ce village? 22. Oui, Monsieur, j'y demeure. 23. Envoyez-vous ce billet à la poste ? 24. Je l'envoie à son adresse.

EXERCISE 44.

1. Do I wear my large black hat? 2. You wear a handsome green hat. 3. Does the banker go to the hairdresser's this morning? 4. He goes there this morning. 5. Does he intend to go to the bank this morning? 6. He does not intend to go there, he has no time. 7. Do you send your letters to the postoffice? 8. I do not send them, they are not yet written (écrites). 9. Do I send you a note? 10. You send me a ticket, but I have no wish to go to the concert. 11. Does your brother go to school to-morrow? 12. He goes (there) to-day, and remains at home to-morrow. 13. Do I go there? 14. You do not go anywhere. 15. Where do you go? 16. I am going to your brother's, is he at home? 17. He is not at home, he is absent since yesterday. 18. Does your brother live in this village? 19. He does not [Sect. XXIII. 12], he lives at my nephew's. 20. Are you wrong to go to school? 21. No, Sir, I am right to go to church and to school. 22. Do you wish to come to my house? 23. I like to go to your house, and to your brother's 24. When are you coming to our house? 25. To-morrow, if 1 have time. 26. Does the banker like to come here? 27. He likes to come to your house. 28. Is the hairdresser coming? 29. He is not yet coming. 30. What are you sending to the scholar? 31. I am sending books, paper, and clothes. 32. Where is he? 33. He is at school. 34. Is the school in the village? 35. It is there.

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-VII.

SECTION XI.-REPRESENTATIVES FOR LEAVES IN
CRYPTOGAMIC PLANTS.

LEAVES, properly so called, only exist on plants which bear
flowers. The reader may test this by his own experience. Did
he ever see a leaf on a mushroom, or a moss, or any other
cryptogamic plant? Probably he may say, "Yes, I have seen
them on ferns, and these are cryptogamic plants." Well, we
have already stated that the leaf-like expansions on ferns are
not leaves, but fronds, and we have explained the distinction
between a leaf and a frond. It only remains to be said, in
connection with this subject, that the little stem to which these
fronds are attached, and which corresponds to a petiole in a real
leaf, is denominated a stipes, from the Latin stipes, the trunk of
a tree.
In the next page is a representation of one of the tree-
ferns of tropical climates, the trunk of which is denominated a
cauder, from the Latin cauder, a stem.

* The i of si is elided before il, ils, but in no other case. This is the only instance of the elision of i.

In past ages these tree-ferns must have been amongst the most numerous of vegetable productions. Coal, we need hardly say, is well known to be nothing more than the remains of vegetable substances, so long buried under great pressure in the earth that they have changed to the condition in which we at present find them. Notwithstanding the change of quality, yet in many cases the original shape of the vegetable has not undergone alteration. So that a person sufficiently acquainted with Botany can readily tell the kind of plant from which any specimen of coal under consideration has been formed.

Although fronds are the substitutes for leaves in ferns and several other cryptogamic plants, nevertheless these organs are not the universal substitutes; but the general complexity of cryptogamic plants, the microscopic nature of these organs, and the comparatively limited acquaintance with this division of the vegetable world, render it undesirable to state much concerning them in a series of papers like these, in which so many tribes of flowering plants claim our notice.

SECTION XII. ON THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF PLANTS: THE FLOWER AND ITS APPENDAGES.

Having written what is necessary concerning the nutritive parts of plants, we shall now de

scribe their reproductive members, the flower and its appendages. It would be folly, indeed, to describe formally what is meant by a flower, but the purposes to which a flower is designed in the economy of vegetable nature will require our attentive consideration. Without flowers there could be no fruit; without fruit there can be no seed; and without the latter the greater number of vegetables could not be multiplied. The reason, then, for denominating flowers the reproductive organs of plants will be manifest. To state this fact, that flowers are the reproductive portions of a plant, is very easy. To demonstrate, however, the elaborate means by which the functions of reproduction are discharged is very difficult. Indeed, the laws affecting the multiplication of animals and vegetables are so similar in many respects, that many of the terms employed in this department of Botany are borrowed from the sister studies of animal anatomy and physiology; and without some preliminary knowledge of these sciences it would be next to impossible to make the reader comprehend the intricacies of vegetable reproductions. We therefore shall not attempt to deal with these intricacies, but shall content ourselves by saying that all plants most probably, certainly all evidently-flowering or phænogamous plants, possess sexes, and these sexes are usually in the same plant, in the same flower of the plant. Occasionally, however, the two Bexes are on different flowers, and sometimes on different plants. We may, therefore, popularly say, that the greater number of flowers contain both gentlemen and ladies; but occasionally, on some plants, the gentlemen and ladies have flowers, each sex to itself; and occasionally, again, the gentlemen monopolise all the flowers on one plant, and the ladies all the flowers on the other. When the two sexes reside in two sets of flowers on one plant, then such a plant is said to be monacious, from two Greek words, novos (pronounced mon'-os) and oikos (pronounced oi-kos), signifying "one house;" the plant, we suppose, being regarded as a house, and the flowers as chambers in the same. When, however, the males all reside in the flowers of one plant, and the females in all the flowers of another, then such plants are said to be diacious, or "two-housed," the reason of which will be obvious.

look at and agreeable to smell, the botanist is obliged trequentiy to destroy them before he can make himself acquainted with the peculiarities of their structure; that is to say, he is obliged to cut or pull their various organs from their attachments; this operation is termed dissection. Presently, then, we shall have to dissect a flower and learn its various parts. As a preliminary to this examination, however, it will be necessary that the learner should make himself acquainted with some general terms employed in this department of Botany.

First of all, then, the manner in which flowers are arranged upon any plant is termed the inflorescence of that plant. By this term botanists understand not merely the flower itself, but various appendages to the flower; in short, the term inflorescence has a very wide signification.

SECTION XIV.-MANNER IN WHICH FLOWERS ARE ATTACHED.

The attachment of flowers to the parent stem usually takes place through the intervention of a little branch-like appendage, to which the term peduncle, or occasionally pedicel, is applied. The reader will therefore remember that a peduncle or pedicel stands to a flower in the same relation as a petiole to a leaf. It

SECT. XIII.-ANATOMICAL EXAMINATION OF A FLOWER. Pleasing objects of contemplation as flowers are, beautifal to

is also called the primary axis of inflorescence, and the flower-stalks which spring from it are called the secondary, tertiary, etc., axes. These pedicels or flower-stalks are arranged on various plants in different ways, and thus give rise to various terms indicative of the na ture of inflorescence. The word peduncle is derived from the low Latin pedunculus, a little foot, while pedicel is derived from the Latin pediculus, which has the same mean. ing. Both words are diminutives of the Latin pes, a foot.

The inflorescence, or mode of flowering, is said to be definite or terminal when the primary axis is terminated by a flower. When the original stem goes on growing in a straight line, giving off as it proceeds little flower-shoots or secondary axes of various degrees on either side, but does not terminate in a flower, then the term indefinite inflorescence is applied; the propriety of which term will be ob vious. The term axillary is sometimes given to this condition of inflorescence. If the reader glance for an instant at Fig. 60 in the opposite page, he will be at no loss to comprehend what is meant by indefinite or axillary inflorescence. The reader will here please to ob serve the little leaf-like things from the arilla (or junctions with the primary axis) of which the flower-peduncles spring in this example. Such leaf-like appendages are frequently to be seen attached to the peduncles of many flowers. They are called bracts, from the Latin bractea, a thin plate of metal, and although their usual appearance is green like a leaf, yet they sometimes undergo very strange modifications. Thus, the pineapple, which we discovered long ago to be no fruit, is, in reality, nothing more than an assemblage of fleshy bracts, and the scale of the fir-cone is nothing more than hard leathery bracts. In proportion as bracts are developed nearer to a flower, so does their natural green colour give place to the colour of the flower itself. Occasionally the flower actually springs from the upper surface of a bract, as in the case of the linden (Fig. 61).

Sometimes bracts unite at the base of each group of flowers, and on the same plane, as, for example, we find it in the carrot. This association of bracts gives rise to what botanists term the involucrum, a Latin word, which is derived from volvo, to wrap or roll, and which means anything that serves to wrap

or cover.

Under the classification indefinite inflorescence are compre