for a shorter time, and will not reproduce them at will. Moreover, these sensations furnish but few starting-points for thought, or speculation, or reason to proceed from. We seldom employ the smell in investigation, unless it be upon objects which give no indication whatever to any of the other senses; and when we do so, we are not satisfied until we have other confirmatory evidence as to the nature of those objects. The chemist in the laboratory will make use of this sense, as a rough-and-ready method of detecting gases which cannot be otherwise easily dealt with, but he always confirms their presence by other tests if possible. Any one who has presided over the practical experiments of

detect pungent gases like ammonia and chlorine, but cannot dis tinguish between them, or between aromatic gases like alcohol and chloroform. On the whole, we make such little use of our organ of smell, its acuteness being as often an inconvenience as an advantage to us, that we endure the loss of this sense with more patience and with less sense of privation than that of any other. The estimate we form from experience of the compara tively small value of this sense, is apt to make us misjudge its importance to the lower animals. But if we imagine that the impressions which this sense brings to animals are as dull, indistinct, and unreliable to their consciousness as to ours, a little

observation of the habits of animals will soon lead us to suspect our error. The sense seems to be the keenest in the carnivora, and man is so sensible of his inferiority to these in the sense of smell, that he supplements his deficiency by their acuteness. The little terrier will inform his master, the rat-catcher, if the rat is at home, by his impatient scratching at the mouth of the hole. The huntsman sees a fox cross an alley in a wood; Reynard has gone he knows not whither, and has left no trace which is available to his dull sense. But a hound comes in sight, and when motioned to the place he sniffs the ground in uncertainty but for a moment, and then flings up his nose towards the sky, and with one long, melancholy howl calls his comrades of the pack, and, in almost less time than it takes to write it, they are all in full cry on the trail, making the echoes ring with their confident music. Who has not observed the pointer, as he stops in the midst of his swift, business-like beat, motionless, as if Medusa's head had turned him to stone? Yet, if you mark him well, his whole frame is instinct with tremulous emotion; his eyes glisten, and seem starting from his head; his nostrils twitch, and his limbs quake with excitement. The game lies hidden in deep cover; it is impossible for him to see it; but as you look at him you feel certain that he is as vividly conscious of its presence, as if his eye saw, or his foot were upon it.

We have seen, in writing of the other senses, that while beasts seem to have these in greater efficiency than men, this is because their attention is not abstracted from their indications, and not because the organ is any more perfect or elaborate in its structure; but in the case of the smell, a corresponding development and complication of structure accompanies a keener sense. The great difference between the skull of man and that of the beast consists in the fact, that in the latter the brain and the brain-case-which it accurately fits-are much smaller; the jaws and therefore the hollow of the mouth-are much larger and longer. Now, the nasal cavity which lies between these partakes, in the beast, of the elongation of the jaws, and not of the curtailment of the brain. The nose is almost always at the end of the muzzle, and the long chambers of the nose only pass under the brain at the posterior part of their course, where they also begin to descend to enter the throat. Hence, instead of comparing the face to a three-storeyed house, as we did in speaking of the man, it should be compared to a two-storeyed shed, with a lean-to behind for the accommodation of the brain. The turbinated bones are, therefore, not so much one above as one behind the other, the front or inferior one being very much enlarged and contorted, or folded, so as to fill up the large chamber. This bone is very differently shaped in the different animals. In the sheep it arises by a broad plate, which runs inward from the outer wall of the nose, and then divides into two plates, both of which assume the form of scrolls, one curling upwards and the other downwards; and the number of turns of these scrolls is so great, that if a transverse section of the nose be made, the edge of the bone looks like the capital of an Ionic column. In the hare and rabbit the bone has a different form, and consists of a number of plates one above the other, which subdivide into other smaller horizontal plates or ridges, all of which are, so to speak, gathered together into one stem at each end. The seal has a bone of the same structure, but much more subdivided and complicated; and the extraordinary development of the organ in these swimming carnivora, would lead us to suppose that they hunt by scent. It will be seen that the design of all these structures, however different their form may be, is to increase the surface over which the pituitary membrane, as it is called, can be spread. Now, in man, the membrane of the lower scroll-bone is not so specially the seat of the organ of smell as of a refined and acute sense of touch; for the nerve which supplies it is not from the olfactory bulb, but from the fifth pair of nerves. It is this nerve which is excited by the application of snuff: so that the snuff does not act as an odour, but as an irritant, and the pleasure may be compared, by those who do not appreciate it, to the pleasure of scratching in other parts of the body. In beasts, however, the nasal branch from the fifth pair of nerves would seem to be a nerve of special sense; and, besides this, since the turbinated bones are not one above, but one behind the other, the air passes successively over them all, instead of below the ethmo, or upper turbinated bones, as in man. Perhaps it is not out of place here to remark upon some functions discharged by the nose, which are not olfactory. In

the porpoise the brain has no olfactory lobe, and there are no olfactory nerves; and therefore the nasal passages are made subservient to the supply of the lungs with air. A reference to the engraving will show how the canal from the slit-like opening at the top of the head passes down past a valve, which closes it against the water when the animal is submerged, and then onward to the head of the windpipe, which here does not open on the floor of the œsophagus (or food-throat), but is continued up, and thrust into, the nasal canal, while the muscles of the soft palate and food-throat grasp it firmly. If the animal chooses, however, he can force the water from his mouth past this perforated plug, and make it issue in a stream from the blow-hole. Though the function of smelling seems to be thus entirely sacrificed to other uses, in the nose of the whale and porpoise, it will be seen from the engraving that an orifice leading from the part of the canal external to the valve passes into a chamber, upon whose folded sides a membrane is spread which has branches of the fifth pair of nerves distributed to it. Through this organ, no doubt, the porpoise can test the purity of the water in which it is immersed.

The hog uses his disc-shaped snout to turn up the earth, and the tapir curls his flexible nose round the grass to tear it up; but these slight differences from the usual development of the organ sink into insignificance beside the enormously elongated trunk of the elephant. In this beast, the two narrow tubes into which the nasal chambers are continued forward, run to the very end of the organ, where there is, on the upper side, a finger, which seems to be as serviceable as any of our own. Strong bundles of muscles run along the trunk on all sides, and radiating ones pass between these, so that the beast can move his trunk in any direction he pleases.

In birds the sense of smell is by no means so efficient as in mammals. This we may pronounce with certainty, because not only is the organ, and its accessory apparatus, less developed, but the habits of birds indicate that they are but little guided by the sense of smell. Raptorial birds, like flesh-eating animals, have better-developed olfactory organs than grain-feeding fowls. The main nerve of smell of the vulture is five times the thickness of that of the turkey, although the carrion-feeding bird (first-named) does not exceed the other in weight; but it would seem that this sense in the vulture and condor is only useful to them in selecting while at their meal, and does not guide them to the meal itself. A number of confined condors had some steaks of flesh, wrapped in paper, placed before them, but they gave no sign of being aware of their presence; when, however, the paper was removed, they were seen tumbling over one another in their eagerness to snatch the food.

The general peculiarities of the organ of smell of birds are the following:-The nerve leaves the skull by one hole, and not through many, as in beasts; the membrane to which the nerve of smell goes is confined to the base of the beak, and the outer nostrils are not at the end, but at its sides or base; and though these nostrils are sometimes protected by a scale (as in the pheasant), or a sheath (as in the stormy petrel), or a bunch of stiff feathers (as in the raven), there are never any flexible cartilages moved by muscles. That singular wingless bird, thence called the apteryx, affords the only exception to the above statements, for its nostrils are at the end of its bill, the upper turbinated bones are of very large size, and many nerves pierce the skull, as in the mammalia. These peculiarities indicate greater acuteness in the sense of smell; and this is thought to be associated with its habit of probing among loose earth, to hunt for worms, by scenting them.

In the pelican there are no external nostrils whatever; and this is, no doubt, reasonably accounted for by the fact that this bird fishes under water with its long bill, and detains its prey for inspection in its capacious pouch. While in this position, the contents of the bill send off effluvia to the nose by the back way of the palate; and since the nostrils of the bird, if it had any, would be above the water, and its prey below it, they could be of no service.

In the higher reptiles, the internal organ is very like that of birds; but in some the nostrils are wide apart, and in others, as in all the crocodiles, they are united into one, which in the true crocodile of the Nile is shaped like a half-moon, and closed by a valve from behind; and in the gavial, or slender-snouted crocodile of the Ganges, the skin round the nostril can be raised so as to allow it to be just lifted above the surface, while the

rest of the animal is concealed. In both cases the nostril is

placed at the tip of the snout, for reasons which those who have read the lessons on the ear will understand. Space fails to write of the organ in the serpent, the frog, and the siren; but, in passing on to describe it as it occurs in the fish, it should be remarked, that in all the foregoing animals there is a communication between this organ and the air-passage to the lungs. The position of these hind nostrils, as they are called, are, as we have seen, very various. In some cases, they open just behind the teeth, as in the toad; and in others, far back in the alimentary canal. They are sometimes double, and sometimes single; but they are always present: and consequently these animals all breathe naturally through the nose: and for this reason it has been difficult to discuss the function of smell without trenching on the function of respiration. In fish, on the contrary, there are no lungs; and therefore the hind outlet of the nose is not present, and the organ is solely an organ of smell.

Its usual form is that of a roundish sac, opening on the side of the muzzle by one or two external holes. The sac is either round, in which case a column of cartilage rises in the centre, and radiating folds run from this to the circumference; or elongated, when a bar of cartilage runs across it; and on each side of this plates pass off to the sides; and these secondary plates at their middle portion are elongated into flaps, which float freely in the water of the sac. An example of the first form is seen in the sturgeon, and of the last in the ray and dog-fish. In the drawing of the dog-fish, one sac is represented with a fore-andaft flap to the nostril, the fore-flap being pulled forward by two threads, so as to disclose the interior; while, on the other side, these flaps have been wholly removed, to expose the organ. These cartilaginous flaps are moved by proper muscles, so that the water in the sacs can be rapidly changed by their action; hence these fish have been said not only to smell, but to scent their prey. In the lamprey, or nine-eyed eel, the nasal sac is single, and in the middle line above the head. In the nautilus, Professor Owen has detected an organ of smell; and the pretty little organs which are thrust up from the back of the naked sea-slug are considered to be of the same nature. We have already pointed out the organ in the lobster; but where the sense resides in insects is yet unknown.

Notwithstanding these difficulties and uncertainties, it is hoped that it has been shown that there is sufficient evidence of contrivance in the nasal organ in the animal kingdom, to make us exclaim with David, "How wonderful are thy thoughts! how great is the sum of them!"

LESSONS IN GERMAN.—XVI. SECTION XXIX.-POSITION OF THE VERB, ETC.

if

WHEN for the sake of emphasis a word (which is not the subject) is placed at the beginning of a principal sentence, or a subordinate sentence precedes the principal sentence, the subject is placed after the finite verb (a present or imperfect), -Da geht Ihr Freund, there goes your friend. Hier steht sein brer here stands his brother. Zu lange schon hast Du geschmet too long already hast thou slumbered. Jest muß ich , now I must go. Als ich gestern nach Hause kam, regnete es et starb, when I returned home yesterday, it was raining very Lard. Heute fann er nicht lesen, und morgen will er nicht, he cannot ad to-day, and to-morrow he will not.

1. Jahren is both transitive and intransitive; when transitive, it is conjugated with haben (§ 71. 1), and signifies to convey in a Tehicle, to drive, as :-Der Kutscher hat mich schnell gefahren, the 3oachman has driven me rapidly. Der Schiffer hat mich schnell bten, the boatman has rowed me rapidly. When intransitive, it is conjugated with fein (§ 71. 1), and signifies to ride in a Tehicle, as-Ich bin gefahren, I have ridden (in a carriage, boat, or other vehicle).

2 Reiten is also used transitively and intransitively, and inifies to ride, as on horseback, as:-Der Araber reitet tas Firt and tas Kameel, the Arabian rides the horse and the camel. Ich habe ein schnelles Pferd geritten, I have ridden a fleet horse. When used intransitively (§ 71. 1), it is conjugated with fein, Er ist sehr schnell geritten, he has ridden (on horseback) very rapidly.

1. Will der alte Soltat heute in den Wald gehen? 2. Er will hingehen, aber heute kann er nicht, denn er hat viel zu thun. 3. Der Haus knecht ist auf den Markt gegangen, um Fleisch zu holen. 4. Um gefund zu bleiben, muß man ortentlich und mäßig leben. 5. Der Holzhauer ist in den Wald gegangen, um Holz zu hauen. 6. Der Meßger geht von einem Dorfe zum antern, um Ochsen zu kaufen. 7. Er geht aus einem Dorfe in tas antere, kann aber keine Ochsen finden. 8. Was will er mit ten Ochsen? 9. Er will sie schlachten; wir müssen ja Fleisch haben. 10. Der Bauer hat zwei Pferte, welche der Brauer kaufen will. 11. Ich gehe in die Start, um einen Hut oder eine Müße zu kaufen. 12. Er hat Bücher zu lesen und eine Aufgabe zu schreiben. 13. Wo will der Freund Ihres Bruters hingehen? 14. Er will nirgends hingehen, er will bei seinem Cheim bleiben. 15. Wollen sie auf den hohen Berg gehen? 16. Ich will dahin gehen, aber nicht heute. 17. Können Sie morgen auf das Land gehen? 18. Ich kann dahin gehen, aber ich will nicht. 19. Wann will 3hr Vater seine Pferde wieder haben? 20. Er muß sie morgen früh haben, weil er morgen Abend nach Frankfurt fahren will. 21. Warum will er nicht dahin reiten? 22. Weil er kein gutes Reityferd hat, und das Wetter sehr kalt ist.

EXERCISE 51.

2.

1. It is too cold for him to-day to go over to Frankfort. There runs the hare over the hill. 3. There drives your brother. 4. The confectioner is gone to the bakehouse in order to bake bread. 5. The butcher goes to market in order to buy sheep. 6. Your coachman has driven me rapidly here. 7. Do you see that man upon that horse which we saw yesterday? 8. The soldiers ride on beautiful horses. 9. They say one rides in those carriages comfortably. 10. We have ridden in your coach to 11. Tread not beyond the law! 12. The new steamboat passes down the river to-day for the first time.

pay our visits.

SECTION XXX.-COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. German adjectives are compared by suffixing to the simple form of the positive, er for the comparative, and eft for the superlative; thus, positive mild (mild), comparative mild.er (milder), superlative mild eft (mildest). (See §§ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.)

1. When the positive ends in cl, en, or er, the of this termination is, in the comparative, omitted, as :-etel (noble), edler* (nobler). It may be here remarke 1, that adjectives of this class add for the superlative ft only; thus, etel, etler, exelft. Adjec admits. tives, when compared, are commonly contracted when euphony

Adjectives in the comparative and superlative are subject to the same rules of inflection as when in the positive degree. (§ 37. 1.)

The disposition to contract two concurrent syllables finds a parallel in almost every language. Thus, in English, we have entrance for enterance; wondrous for wonderous, etc. So hoped, prayed, etc., words but one. containing each two syllables, are pronounced as though consisting of This is a serious difficulty in the way of foreigners learning our language, but one which in the German, by a conformity of orthography to pronunciation, is entirely avoided.