LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-VI.

THE GREEK ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.

THE temple of Apollo Panionius, in Ionia, was built according to the Doric style (Fig. I.); but the Ionians, dissatisfied with the simplicity of this order, invented another of a more delicate character, and called it the Ionic order, after the name of their country. They made the height of the column in this order greater in proportion to its diameter than in the Doric order. The form of the capital was totally different, having large volutes at its corners, of which the spiral is often very finely sculptured; the entablature was changed in its parts and proportions; and a base was added to the bottom of the column, in harmony with its capital (see Fig. II.). Of the origin of this order of architecture we have no distinct account. Vitruvius states, that as the Doric order was considered strong and masculine, like the form of Hercules, the Ionians modelled their new

world. The architect who traced the plan of this temple was Ctesiphon, who flourished about 552 B.C., and it was partly executed under his direction and that of his son Metagenes; but it was completed by other architects, who worked upon it after these for the space of more than two centuries. Vitruvius says that the form of this temple was dipterick (two-winged), that is, surrounded with two rows of columns in the form of a double portico. It was 426 feet long, and 216 broad. In this temple there were 127 columns of marble each sixty feet high, given by as many kings! Thirty-six of these columns were carved by the most excellent artists of their times. Scopas, one of the most celebrated sculptors of Greece, executed one which was the finest ornament of this magnificent structure. All Asia had contributed with incredible ardour to the erection and decoration of this temple.

Vitruvius informs us that Demetrius, whom he calls the servant of Diana, and Paconius, the Ephesian, finished this

order according to the elegance and delicacy of the female figure, and that the volutes were taken from the curls of the hair on each side of the face. It is not easy to conceive how the proportions of a Greek order of architecture could be borrowed from that of the human figure, to which it has so little natural resemblance; and it has been ingeniously remarked that it is more natural to trace the form of the volute in the Ionic order to the curling of the bark of a rude upright post, crushed by a superincumbent weight greater than it could bear. In this order, continued subjects began to appear on the frieze, which in the Doric were considered the exception to the rule. The cornice of the entablature was also enriched with exquisite mouldings, and decorated with sculptured ornaments. The edifices constructed after the Ionic order were numerous and magnificent, such as the temples of Bacchus, at Teos; Apollo, at Miletus; Minerva, at Priene and Tegea; and of Diana, at Magnesia and Ephesus. This order was also employed in the construction of the Erectheum, or the temples of Minerva Polias and Pandrosus, in the Acropolis at Athens; of the Delphic Apollo and of Esculapias, in the same city; and in that of Juno, in Attica. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was justly deemed one of the seven wonders of the

111. CORINTHIAN.

temple, which was of the Ionic order. History records the remarkable fact that this temple was burned to the ground on the day that Alexander the Great was born. This same Alexander, it is said, offered to rebuild it at his own expense, provided that the Ephesians would consent that he should have the sole honour of it, and that no name should be added to his in the inscription to be put upon it. The Ephesians, not approving this condition, concealed their refusal of his offer by saying, "that it was not consistent for one god to erect a monument to another." This temple was rebuilt with still greater magnificence than at first. The truth of this may be gathered from the words of the sacred historian, in reporting the speech of Demetrius the silversmith, who made silver shrines of Diana, to the workmen of like occupation: "Sirs, ye know that by this craft we have our wealth. Moreover, ye see and hear, that not alone at Ephesus, but almost throughout all Asia, this Paul hath persuaded and turned away much people, saying that they be no gods which are made with hands: so that not only this our craft is in danger to be set at nought; but also that the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed, whom all Asia and the world worshippeth." Such was the glory

that attended the worship of "the image that fell down from Jupiter," and such was the terror of the Ephesians that their temple would be destroyed a second time, that, in the words of the sacred historian, "when they heard these sayings they were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians;" and having assaulted Paul, and created a violent uproar, the mob continued to utter the same cry, without intermission, for the "space of two hours," in the chief city of Asia. (Acts xix. 23-28.)

The temple of Diana, at Magnesia, was built under the direction of Hermogenes. He made its general dimensions the same as for a double range of columns; but, in order to afford more space to the porticoes, he omitted the inner range. Thus a clear space was left between the outer range and the body of the building; and thus he established the style called the pseudo-dipterick. Vitruvius speaks with great veneration of this architect. The temple of Minerva Ulea, at Tegea, designed and erected under the direction of Scopas, was of singular construction. The peristyle of the temple was of the Ionic order; the interior was divided into three aisles by two rows of Doric columns, and over these were placed others of the Corinthian order. The sculpture upon the two pediments was executed by the artist himself.

The simplicity and severity of the Doric order having now been abandoned, the artists of Greece Proper, not to be behind the inventors of the Ionic order, by an effort of genius, gave birth to a third order, which surpassed the Ionic in delicacy of proportion and richness of decoration. This order was named the Corinthian. The merit of its invention is generally ascribed to Callimachus, a celebrated sculptor of Athens, who is supposed to have reached the zenith of his fame about 540 B.C. He is said to have taken the idea of this order from observing the leaves of the acanthus growing round a basket which had been placed, with some favourite trinkets, upon the grave of a young Corinthian lady; the stalks which rose among the leaves having been formed into slender volutes by a square tile which covered the basket. In the Corinthian order the column is more elegant, and the capital longer and more ornamented than in the Ionic, spreading in the form of a basket, and commingling the richest and lightest vegetation with the decorations of preceding orders. The top of the capital, instead of being square, assumes the curvilinear form, having angular projections supported by elegant volutes. The mouldings possess more beautiful ornaments than those of the Ionic or the Doric. The frieze is usually ornamented with scrolls of foliage; in the cornice, the corona is supported by modillions, which represent the extremities of the beams of the roof, and are usually carved into a scroll (see Fig. III, a.). These elegant improvements introduced into their orders rendered the Greeks the real masters of architecture; because, previous to their invention, the Egyptians and the Asiatic nations in general followed no precise rule in their constructions; but as soon as the orders were founded on rational proportions, of an exact and invariable nature, they were imitated in the edifices of every other nation.

While awarding every credit to the ingenuity of the Greeks, however, it must not be forgotten that in the columns of several temples in Upper Egypt, whose shafts represent bundles of reeds or lotuses bound together in several places by fillets, the capitals are formed by several rows of delicate leaves. In the ruins of Ellora, in India, the capitals of the columns are also composed of similar ornaments; and the Persians, at their great festivals, were accustomed to introduce ornaments of flowers at the tops of the pillars in their public apartments. From tradition, report, or personal observation, Callimachus might be made acquainted with these examples, and might be led to the composition of the Corinthian capital, the chief ornament of the Greek school. The Corinthian order, although distinguished for its richness and even luxuriousness of decoration in all its details, is essentially the most simple in its general character, and easiest in execution. The finest examples of this order were to be seen at Athens, in the monument of Lysicrates, the Tower of the Winds, the Stoa or public piazzas, and the Arch of Adrian, at Athens; the Pantheon of Agrippa, and the three columns of the Campo Vaccino, at Rome. The Cerinthian order appears to have been but partially employed in Greece before the time of the Roman conquest; but the Romans themselves employed it to a great

extent in every part of their empire; hence it is in edifices constructed under their influence that the most perfect specimens are found. It was only in the construction of temples that the turbulent states of Greece could unite; and in consequence of this union, they constructed edifices of great magnitude and splendour. Many of this description were built and maintained at the expense of confederate states, and even of all Greece - such were the temples at Delphi, Delos, Ephesus, Olympia, Eryx, etc.-and these temples had territorial revenues, besides being enriched by private donations. The Greeks appear to have made the greatest progress in the arts, and to have constructed the most admirable of their edifices, during the period from the age of Solon and Pytha goras to the era of Alexander the Great. Their architecture prevailed in the countries where they extended their influence along the coast of Asia. Alexander and his successors introduced it into Egypt, and probably in the cities he built on his route to India. To the westward it extended to Sicily, Italy, and the south of France. After the brilliant period to which we have alluded, the manners of the Greeks became Asiatic; their sublime spirit of independence was subdued; and although they continued for ages to be the instructors of their Roman conquerors, their glory in the arts declined, and with it the purity and elegance of the Greek architecture.

VOCABULARY.

Eveõpevw, I lie in Mivws, w, d, Minos wait, capture. (a proper name). Eraivos,-ov, 8, praise. News, -w, 8, a temple. Ευχομαι, I pray (with | Πλειστος, -η, -ον,

dat.). Ηρα, -ας, ἡ, Hera (called by the Latins, Juno). Onpevw, I hunt, catch. Θηρευτης, -ου, δ, α huntsman. Kri(w, I found, build. Λαμβάνω, I take. Meveλews, w, d, Menelaus (a proper name).

most, very many. Πτερον, του, το, 8 feather, wing.

'Padios, -a, -or, easy. Zaμios, -ov, d, a Sa

mian. Σεβομαι, I venerata, worship. Taws, w, d, a peacock. "Tios, -ov, d, a son. 'Ωσπερ, even as.

τον Θεον ίλεων εχειν. 11. Οἱ θεοι τοις αγαθοις ίλεως εισιν. Α' ήδοναι απαγουσι τον πλειστον λεῶν ὥσπερ αιχμαλωτον. 13. Οἱ Σάμιοι Ήρα καλους ταως τρεφουσιν. 14. Τῳ τα καλα πτερα

εστιν.

EXERCISE 16.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

1. You build temples to the gods. 2. Temples are built to the gods. 3. I build a temple to God. 4. They walk on ropes. 5. We hunt hares. 6. Hares are hunted. 7. The Samians worship beautiful peacocks. 8. They worship the merciful God. 9. God is merciful (gracious) to good men. 10. Huntsmen hunt hares. 11. Menelaus obtains deathless praise.

VOCABULARY.

Ανόητος, -ον, sense- Γαμετη, ης, ή, α

less. Απαγορεύω, I name. Αρέσκω, I please. Βαβυλωνία, -ας, ή,

Εκφερω, I bring out,

Θηριών, -ου, το, wild beast.

Ιερος, -α,-or, (gen.), sacred, holy.

Πλοος (πλοῦς), -ου, δ,

a voyage.

Ποιητης,-ου, ὁ, a poet. Ροδοδάκτυλος, -ον, rosy-fingered.

Babylon. produce. Βασίλειος, -α, -ον, Ελενη, ης, ή, Helen. kingly, royal; τα Επι (dat.), on acβασίλεια, the count of. kingly buildings, Επικινδυνος, -ov, dan- Στηλη, ης, ή, α ie., the palace. gerous. pillar.

EXERCISE 17.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

1. Οἱ ταῳ Ήρας ίεροι ησαν. 2. Θαυμάζομεν Μενέλεων επι τῇ αρετη. 3. Οἱ ποιηται την Εω ῥοδοδάκτυλον απαγορευουσιν. 4. Η αληθεια πολλακις ουκ αρεσκει τω λεφ. 5. Ελενη ην ἡ Μενέλεω γαμετη 6. Η Βαβυλωνια εκφέρει πολλους ταως. 7. Εν τοις των θεων νεῷς πολλαι στήλαι εισιν. 8. Οἱ λαγῳ δειλα θηρια εισιν. 9. Ο περι τον Αθω πλους ην κινδυνος. 10. Τα βασιλεια καλα ανωγεω

έχει.

EXERCISE 18.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

1. Menelaus is admired on account of his bravery. 2. We admire the rosy-fingered dawn. 3. Many peacocks are produced in Babylon. 4. In the temple of Hera is a beautiful peacock. 5. Huntsmen catch peacocks. 6. Peacocks are caught by huntsmen. 7. Good citizens avoid the senseless people.

THE THIRD DECLENSION.

The forms of the third declension in Greek are various, and can be learnt only by attentive practice. Some aid may, how. ever, be given by means of classification.

The variations occur mostly in the singular number, and in the nominative and genitive cases. The forms of the nominative singular, which are numerous, will appear as we proceed, and may therefore be omitted from this table of

Stem.

πέπερι,

σωματι

τερατ,

The accusative has

in masculines and feminines ending in is, us, aus, and ous, the stems of which severally terminate in 4, υ, αν, and ov, as :

If the stem ends in a consonant, a instead of is found in the accusative, as φλεβ, φλεψ, φλέβα, a vein; κορακ, κοραξ, κορακα, & raven; λαμπαδ, λαμπας, λαμπαδα, a torch.

The vocative is the same as the nominative or as the stem.

The genders of the third declension are best learnt by practice. The third declension may be distinguished from the first and the second by the fact that it adds a syllable to the nominative, while in them all the cases have the same number of syllables. Nouns which have the same number of syllables in all the cases are termed parisyllabic (in Latin par, equal), and nouns which lengthen the genitive and the cases derived from it, are termed imparisyllabic (Latin im [in], not). Hence the first and second declensions are called parisyllabic, and the third is called imparisyllabic.

In order to facilitate the acquisition of a knowledge of the nouns of the third declension, and to afford you thorough practice in them, I shall divide those nouns into several classes: 1. NOUNS WHOSE STEM ENDS IN A CONSONANT;

and of these I give in the first place

a. Nouns of which the Nominative gives the pure Stem. The case-endings are appended to the nominative.

Dual.

THE CASE-ENDINGS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

Voc. Neuter nouns have the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative alike. The student who is acquainted with Latin will readily see how much this Greek third declension corresponds with the Latin third declension.

|

The terminations given above are affixed to the stem. The stem is, in some words, the same as the nominative; thus, λειμων, λειμων-os, a meadow, where the ending os is simply added to λειμων. In masculine and feminine nouns, however, the stem often appears in the nominative in an altered form. When the stem is so altered, you must find it before you affix the case-endings to it. In order to find the stem, remove the genitive termination from the noun; what remains is the stem; e.g., κορακος (of a crow), the os is the sign of the genitive, which being removed, leaves κορακ as the stem ; and κορακ is, for the | sake of euphony, lengthened in the nominative into κορακς, that 13, κοραξ; for the laws of sound in Greek endure at the end of a word only these consonants, namely, ν, ρ, σ (ξ, ψ); the other consonants are either changed or thrown away. Hence the T in the stem of Xenophon is dropped, as Ξενωφωντ-ος, Ξενωφωντ, Ξενωφων. Neuter nouns present the stem in the nominative.

λειμων-ε. Ξενοφωντ.ε. παιάν οιν. λειμων-οιν. Ξενοφωντ-οιν. νεκταροιν. The datives plural in full would be παιανσι, λειμωνσι, Ξενοφωντσι, but the y is dropped before σι for the sake of euphony. Απολλων, Apollo; Ποσειδων, Poseidon (in Latin, Neptunus), are declined thus :-Απολλων, Απολλωνος, Απολλωνι, Απολλων-α, also Απολλω-α and Απολλω, thus making the accusative singular in Απολλω ; 80 Ποσειδώ.

Απολλων, Ποσειδων, and σωτηρ, a deliverer, Saviour, have the short vowel in the vocative, as ω Απολλον, ω Ποσειδων, ω σωτερ. The neuters of this subdivision end in p (αρ, ορ, ωρ, υρ); το πύρ, fre, has του πυρος.

EXERCISE 19.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

1. Φεύγε τους θηρας. 2. Χειρ χειρα νίζει. 3. Απεχου του ψηνος. 4. Οἱ λειμωνες θαλλουσιν. 5. Oi σтраTITαι adovσ παιάνα. 6. Εν πυρι χρυσον και αργυρον γιγνωσκομεν. 7. Πολλοι παρα κρατηρα γίγνονται φίλοι πλείστοι δε εχθροι. 8. Oi areрwπо τέρπονται κιθαρα και θαλια και, χοροις και παιᾶσιν. 9. Oi 'EXANves τον Απολλω και τον Ποσειδω σεβονται. 10. Oi σrovdaιor μaonтaι τα Ξενοφωντος βιβλια ήδέως αναγιγνωςκουσιν.

EXERCISE 20.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

1. Avoid wild beasts. 2. They avoid a wild beast. 3. Wash the (thy) hands. 4. Keep ye from wasps. 5. A soldier is delighted with the cry of victory. 6. The cry of victory delights soldiers. 7. O earnest scholars, read the books of Xenophon. 8. The books of Xenophon are read by (ro, gen.) earnest scholars. 9. We delight in beautiful meadows (dat.). 10. The meadows bloom. 11. Poets worship Apollo. 12. The poet worships Poseidon.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-VI.

EXERCISE 11.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

1. Pursue honourable deeds, O beloved youth. 2. Obey the words of thy teacher. 3. Thou learnest excellent things from the excellent. 4. A faithful friend partakes of (your) good and (your) bad things (fortunes). 5. The gods (eo) care for men. 6. Men worship (θεραπεύουσιν) the gods. 7. Danger attends many works. 8. Good things are mixed with bad. 9. The bad man is hostile to (at enmity with) gods and men. 10. Men rejoice in good (men or things). 11. O God, grant good fortune (happiness) to our friends. 12. O slave, bear the wine to the young man. 13. Wine (ó orvos) does not dissipate, but begets cares. 14. Glory follows a difficult achievement.

EXERCISE 12.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

1. Οι αγαθοί τῷ Θεῷ πείθονται. 2. Οι πείθονται τῷ Θεῷ οἱ κακοι. 3. Πείθεσθε, ω καλοι νεανίαι, τῳ διδασκαλῳ. 4. Οι κακοι τοις αγαθοις εχθροι 5. Των κακών απέχον. 6. Οι εσθλοι των παιδων επιμέλονται (φροντίζουσι) 7. Μη τῳ ψευστου λόγῳ πίστευε, ω φίλε παι. 8. Hoλois Aoyous επεται κίνδυνος. 9. Οἱ εσθλοι νεανίαι τους διδασκαλους θεραπεύουσιν.

EXERCISE 13.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

1. Virtue, not time, is the measure of life. 2. Death liberates men from labours and evils. 3. Wine rejoices the minds of men. 4. With ten thousand trials honourable things arise (are produced). 5. The divinity conducts the bad to judgment. 6. A faithful friend in a diffi. cult division (strife) is worth silver and gold. 7. There are many diseases among men. 8. Counsel leads to good. 9. Silence brings honour to a youth. 10. The door is shut by bars. 11. Art nourishes men. 12. O beloved disciples (scholars), strive after wisdom and virtue.

EXERCISE 14.-ENGLISH-GREEK.

1. Τι θανατος απολύονται των κακῶν οἱ ανθρωποι. 2. Τῷ βίῳ πολλοί πόνοι έπονται. 3. 1 του Θεού σοφία προς ευδαιμονίαν τους εσθλους αγει. 4. Τοις του κριτου λόγοις έπου. 5. Οι του νέου λογοι εισι κακοί. 6. Η λυρα της του θυμον μέριμνας λυει. 7. Νεῳ προσήκει ἡ ἡσυχία. 8. Τους αγαθους τρέφει ἡ τέχνη, 9. Ο μοχλος κλείει την θύραν.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XX. NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE. THE whole surface of the globe contains, as we have seen in the last lesson (page 166), about 197,000,000 square miles. The land is considered to contain about 52,000,000 square miles; and consequently, the water or sea to contain about 145,000,000 of square miles. This makes the proportion of the water to the land nearly as 13 to 36, or, speaking in general terms, approximately as 3 to 1. The proportion of the land to the whole surface of the earth is about 4 to 15, or rather more than that of 1 to 4. Thero is much more land in the northern hemisphere than in the southern; and considerably more in the eastern hemisphere than in the western; this may be seen at once by looking at a map of the world; but it is more clearly seen by looking at a terrestrial globe. An accurate idea of the relative proportions of land and water on the earth's surface may be gained from the annexed

diagrams, of which Fig. 11 shows the world in eastern and western hemispheres on the meridians of 160° W. long. and 20° E. long.; while Fig. 12 shows the world on the plane of the equator in northern and southern hemispheres; and Fig. 13 the world on the plane of the horizon of London in hemispheresthe one containing the greatest quantity of land, and the other the greatest quantity of water that can be obtained in single hemispheres by any similar bisection of the globe in any plane of a great circle. The land in the northern hemisphere is con sidered to occupy rather more than two-fifths of the whole hemisphere, and the land in the southern hemisphere about one-eighth of the whole hemisphere. The land preponderates in the northeastern quarter of the globe, and the water in the south-western quarter. Scarcely any land has yet been discovered in the south frigid zone, and the limits of the land in the north frigid zone have not hitherto been correctly ascertained. By far the greater portion of the land lies within the north temperate zone; greater part of the remainder lies within the torrid zone; still less within the south temperate zone; and the least within the north frigid zone. The greater part of the sea lies within the torrid zone; the greater part of the remainder within the south temperate zone; still less within the north temperate zone; and the least within the north frigid zone.

the

On looking at a globe or map of the world, the student will perceive that all the great and continuous tracts of land, commonly called continents (from the Latin continens, holding together), become pointed as they stretch towards the south, by which they are made to assume a pyramidal or triangular form at the extremity. The continents of North and South America and of Africa are the most remarkable illustrations of this fact. In consequence of this tendency to taper towards the south, 50 narrow is the connecting link or neck of land (commonly called an isthmus, from the Greek 100μos, isth'-mos, a neck, or narrow passage) between North America and South America, that little more than forty miles of land separate Panama from Porto Bello, on opposite sides of the Isthmus of Darien. The southern points of the other two continents are well known; Cape Horn must be considered as that of South America, notwithstanding the Strait of Magellan; and the Cape of Good Hope that of Africa. Here it may be useful to remark that when a tapering point of land projects into the sea, it is called a cape, from the Latin caput, a head, a figurative but very natural expression for the extremity of the land, which may be considered as the top or vertex of the triangular shape which it assumes when jutting out from the continent to which it belongs. When the land thus projecting into the sea is elevated considerably above the sea-level, it is called a promontory, from the Latin pro, front of; and mons, a mountain-that is, mountain land in front of the continent. The English term headland is often used for capes and promontories on a small scale, connected with the land; so is also the term naze or ness, from the Saxon næse, or German nase, a nose, or projection from the face. With regard to the term strait, which is applied to a narrow passage of the sea between two continents, or between a continent and an island, or between two islands, it is evidently derived from streht, the past participle of the Saxon verb streccan, to stretch, and bears the same relation to the water that the term isthmus does to the land.

In reference to the continents of Europe and Asia, there is also the general tendency to taper towards the south; in the former continent, however, this tendency is greatly obstructed by the vicinity of the African continent, so that the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) does not so manifestly assume the triangular form. Still this tendency is partially developed in various parts of the south of this continent; as in the con formation of Italy and Greece, which taper, but very irregularly, towards the south, evidently in consequence of the feebler action of the Mediterranean Sea, as compared with the full play of the great Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the latter continent, the tendency to taper toward the south has been divided in such a manner as to present the three peninsulas of Arabia, India, and Malacca, of which the two former are pretty regular in form; but the latter, in combination with what is called the Eastern Peninsula, is very irregular in this respect.

The term island is well known to signify a portion of land, whether large or small, which is completely surrounded by water. This word is derived from the Danish öie, an eye, and is literally eye-land, or land so called because it is surrounded by water, a