There is no form for the vocative; w, which is commonly used, is an interjection. The way to learn the article (as well as the adjective) is to repeat the parts first perpendicularly, d, TOU, TO, TOV, etc., and then horizontally, as 8,, To, until you When you think you are perfectly familiar with the whole. have mastered the task, examine yourself by asking, What is the accusative singular, feminine gender? What is the nominative plural, masculine gender? etc.; and when you have given an answer from memory alone, consult the book, to ascertain whether you are correct. Finally, write out the article in full from memory. Indeed, spare no pains to make yourself master of the article. There is a special reason for this advice, since the terminations of the article are, in the main, the same as the terminations of the noun and the adjective. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.—II. EXERCISE 1.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 7. 1. Always be true. 2. Rejoice ye (xaupo, I rejoice). 3. Follow. 4. Do not complain. 5. I live pleasantly. 6. I am well educated. Thou writest beautifully. 8. If thou writest ill, thou art blamed. 9. He hastens. 10. He fights bravely. 11. If you flatter, you are not true. 12. If thou flatterest, thou art not believed. 13. We flee. 14. If we flee, we are pursued. 15. You flee badly (like cowards). 16. If you are idle, you are blamed. 17. If you fight bravely, you are admired. 18. If they flatter, they are not true. 19. It is not well to flee. 20. It is well to fight bravely. 21. If thou art pursued, do not flee. 22. Fight bravely. 23. If they are idle, they are blamed. 24. If thou speakest the truth, thou art believed. 25. Always excel. Eat and drink, and play, moderately. EXERCISE 2.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 26. 1. Αληθεύω. 2. Αληθεύεις. 3. Αληθεύει. 4. Αληθευομεν. 5. Αληθευετε. 6. Αληθεύουσι. 7. Ει αληθεύω πιστευομαι. 8. Mn μaxeobe. 9. Maxovтai. 10. Επεσθε. 11. Επῃ. 12. Επεσθε. 13. Παίζει. 14. Devyovri. 15. E φεύγουσι διώκονται. 16. Θαυμαζομαι. 17. Θαυμάζονται, 18. Ει βλακεύουσιν ου θαυμάζονται. 19. Εν έχει ανδρειως μαχεσθαι. 20. METρIWS Eσdie Kai Rive. 21. Οι σπεύδουσι. 22. Ε: κολακεύεις ου θαυμάζη. 23. Καλως γράφει. 24. Γράφουσι κακως. 25. Εν έχει αει αριστεύειν. 26. Metpiws BLOTEVETE. 27. Αγαν εσθίουσι. MECHANICS.-XII. THE INCLINED PLANE-THE WEDGE-THE SCREW. : THE mechanical powers are usually said to be six in number the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. On examination, it will be found that any machine whatever consists of various combinations or modifications of these. If, however, we look more closely, we shall find that these six may really be reduced to three, namely, the lever, the pulley, and the inclined plane. These, then, are the three fundamental mechanical powers; the wheel and axle being, as we saw in our last lesson, a succession of levers coming into play one after another; and the wedge and the screw, as we shall soon find, merely modifications of the inclined plane. To this, then, we must now turn our attention, and see how the inclined plane may be used as a mechanical power, and what is the advantage gained by its use. A horizontal plane is one that has an even surface, like a portion of the surface of a lake on a calm day, every part being at the same level. If this plane be now tilted or lifted at one end, so as to make an angle with the horizon, it is called an inclined plane, and the angle which it makes with the level surface is called its angle of inclination. Hence we speak of a plane inclined at an angle of 30, or any other number of degrees. There is also another way of speaking of the inclination, as, for instance, when we say a road has an ascent of one foot in twelve, meaning that for every twelve feet of length measured along its surface there is a vertical rise of one foot. These modes of expressing the same fact may be used indiscriminately. Now we can easily see that some advantage is gained by the use of the inclined plane. If a drayman wishes to raise a heavy barrel into his dray, he does not attempt to lift it vertically, for he knows he could not do it; but he lays a ladder or plank sloping from the ground up to the dray, and rolls the barrel up this incline. So in the railway which has been formed over K W A B E Fig. 77. Mont Cenis, the trains go along a series of zigzags, which are really a succession of inclined planes, and thus the mountain chain is crossed. A driver, too, in driving a heavy load up a steep incline will frequently cross from side to side of the road, as he goes up a less steep incline, and thus spares the horses. How comes it, then, that this advantage is gained, and what proportion does the load bear to the power that raises it? We will try and solve these questions. Let A c represent a plane inclined at the angle CAB; W is a weight resting on the plane and fastened to a cord which passes over the pulley D, and is kept stretched by a power, P. The cord we will first suppose to be parallel to the surface of the plane, and the power therefore acts in this direction. Friction has, in practice, a great influence in a case like this; as, however, we shall speak about that shortly, we will neglect it now, and suppose that the plane is perfectly smooth, and that the weight is just kept in its position by the action of P. We found in our third lesson that, if we draw a line, G E, downwards from G, the centre of gravity of w, and make it of such a length as to represent the weight of w, and then through E draw E F parallel to G D, and just long enough to meet the line a F, which is perpendicular to the surface of the plane, that then EF represents in magnitude the power P. We have, in fact, a triangle of forces, the three sides of which represent the three forces which act on the weight and keep it at rest. But the angles of the triangle E F G are equal to those of the triangle c BA. This is easily seen, for the angle E F G is equal to C B A, each being a right angle. GEF is also equal to A C B; for, if we continue E F till it meets ΒC, we shall have a parallelogram, and these will be opposite angles, and so must be equal; the third angles are equal too, since G F and E G are perpendicular to A C and A B. The angles οf one triangle are equal, then, to those of the other, and there fore the sides of the triangle E F G bear the same proportion to one another that those of C B A do. Of this you can satisfy yourself by actual measurement, and you will find the rule always hold good. The proper mode of proving it, you will learn from Euclid. The three sides of A B C represent, then, the three forces which act on w; A C representing the weight, B C the power, and A B the resistance of the plane, or the part of the weight which is supported by it. Hence we see that if the incline be 1 foot in 20, a man in rolling a weight up will only have to support of it. We can easily arrive at this result in another way. Suppose a person wants to lift a weight of 200 pounds to a height of one foot, he will have to exert a force of that amount if he lift it straight up, and will then move it through just one foot. But if, instead of this, he moves it up this incline, when he has passed over one foot in length of its surface, he will only have raised it of a foot, and will have to move it over the whole twenty feet of the plane in order to raise it the one foot. That is, he will have to move it twenty times the space he would if he lifted it direct, and will therefore sustain only of the weight at any moment. Still, he must sustain this portion twenty times as long. This supplies us with another illustration of the law of virtual velocities which we explained in the last lesson. The general rule for the gain in the inclined plane when the power acts in a direction parallel to it, may be stated as follows: The power bears the same ratio to the weight it will sustain that the perpendicular elevation of the plane does to the length of its surface. If the power, instead of acting along the plane, acts at an angle to it, whether it be parallel with the base or in any other direc tion, as G K, we have merely to draw E H parallel to the line of action of the force, instead of parallel to the plane, and, as before, we shall obtain a triangle of forces, the three sides of which represent the three forces, and thus we can calculate the power required to support the weight. If we have two inclined planes meeting back to back, like the letter V inverted, and a weight resting on each, the weights being connected by a cord which passes over a fixed pulley at the summit, we can see, from this principle that there will be equilibrium when the weights bear the same proportion to each other as the lengths of the inclines on which they rest: for it is clear that, the steeper the plane, the less is the portion of the resistance borne by it. If, for example, one incline is 15 inches long, and the other 21 inches, a weight of 5 pounds on the former will balance one of 7 pounds on the latter. For, supposing the vertical height of the summit to be 6 inches, the portion of the force of 5 pounds which acts downwards, and tends to raise the other, is of 5 pounds, which equals 2 pounds; while the portion of the other which acts downwards is of 7 pounds, which is also equal to 2 pounds. This system of two inclines is often used in mining districts, a train of loaded trucks running down from the pit's mouth to the staith, being made to drag a train of empty ones up the incline. Many familiar instances of the use of the inclined plane are met with every day, though they often escape notice, unless we are specially looking for them. Our knives, scissors, bradawls, chisels, needles, and nearly all cutting and piercing tools, act on this principle. Those immense blocks of stone placed across the top of upright pillars, which excite the surprise of all visitors to Stonehenge, are believed to have been raised in this way, by making an inclined plane and pushing them up on rollers. THE WEDGE. We pass on now to notice the wedge, which essentially consists of two inclined planes of small inclination placed with their bases one against the other. Sometimes one side only of the wedge is sloping, and it is then simply a movable inclined plane. In using this, it is so placed that it can only be moved in the direction of the length, and the weight to be raised is likewise prevented from moving in any direction except vertically. If pressure be applied to the head of the wedge, the weight will be raised. The gain is the same here as in the inclined plane. R M Fig. 78. The wedge, however, usually consists of a triangular prism of steel, or some very hard substance, and is used as shown in Fig. 78. The point is inserted into a crack or opening, and the wedge is then driven, not by a constant pressure, but by a series of blows from a hammer, or some similar instrument. It is usual to consider the wedge as kept at rest by three forces-first, a pressure acting on the head of the wedge, and forcing it vertically downwards, as at P; secondly, the mutual resistance of it, and the obstacle which acts at right angles to the surface of the wedge, as at RR; and thirdly, the force which opposes the motion, and acts at right angles to the direction in which the object would move, as at c. As, however, the resistance to be overcome varies very much from moment to moment, both in direction and intensity, and as the force is usually supplied by impact or blows, and not by pressure, such calculations afford very little help towards determining the real gain. The other mechanical powers are usually employed in sustain. ing or raising a weight, or offering a continuous resistance; a continuous force is therefore used with them. In the wedge, the resistance to which it is applied is usually one which, when once overcome, is not again called into play. In splitting timber, for instance, when the wedge is driven in, the particles of timber are forced apart, their cohesion is overcome, and they do not join again. So in dividing large stones, when once a crack has been made through them, no continued application of force is needed to keep them from re-uniting. When continuous force is required, the wedge having been driven forward is kept from slipping back by friction. As, then, we cannot calculate the force generated by a blow, we must be content with the general statement that the smaller the angle of the wedge the greater is the power gained. THE SCREW. This is the last of the mechanical powers, and, like the wedge, acts on the principle of the inclined plane. If we stretch a cord so as to represent the slope of an inclined plane, and then, holding a ruler, or some cylindrical body, vertically, we roll up the cord upon it, we shall have a screw, the spiral line traced out by the cord being called its thread. It is easy to see that the thread has at every point the same inclination as the inclined plane, and that a particle in travelling up the screw will pass over the same distance as if it moved up the plane. A screw, then, is a cylinder with a spiral ridge raised upon it; this ridge is sometimes made with a square edge (Fig. 79 a), and then has more strength; but usually it is sharp, as seen in a common screw, and this way of making it reduces friction. To use the screw, it is necessary to have a hollow cylinder with a groove cut on the inside of it (Fig. 79 b), so that the thread of the screw (Fig. 79 c) exactly fits into it, and the screw will rise or fall according to which way it is turned. This hollow cylinder is called the nut or female screw. d Fig. 79. It is evident that, if we are to gain any power, the nut must not be allowed to turn together with the screw; and hence we have different modes of using the screw, according as the screw itself or the nut is fixed. When used to fasten the beams of a house together, or to strain the wire of a fence, the wrench; the screw is thus drawn forward, and the required screw is prevented from rotating, and the nut turned by a strain applied. In a carpenter's vice, on the other hand, the nut is fixed, and the pressure applied by turning the screw. The gain is in each case just the same, the difference being merely one of convenience in applying it. Now we shall easily be able to see the amount of power gained. If a particle be placed at the point of a screw and prevented from turning with it, it will, after one revolution of the screw, have been raised through a distance equal to that between two threads of the screw, while any point in the circumference of the screw will have passed through a space equal surface of the screw, it will bear the same proportion to the to that circumference. If, then, the power be applied at the resistance that the distance between two threads of the screw does to its circumference. In practice, however, the power is nearly always applied at the extremity of a lever, as at d in Fig. 79 a, so that it becomes a combination of the lever and inclined plane. In a thumb-screw the flattened part acts as a lever, and when a screw is driven by a screwdriver we usually grasp it at the broadest part, and thus gain a leverage. More commonly, however, a long lever is put through the head of the screw. In all such cases we can easily ascertain the gain from the fundamental principle of virtual velocities. Hence, we have the following rule:-Measure the circumference of the circle de scribed by the power, and divide this by the distance between two threads of the screw; the result will be the mechanical gain. Thus, if the power describe a circle whose circumference is 10 feet, and the distance between two threads be inch, we have a gain of 10 feet divided by inch, or 480.. There is, however, a difficulty here. We cannot easily measure the actual space through which the power passes, nor can we calculate it with absolute B by, which equals 264; and as the power is 10 pounds, the pressure is 264 × 10, or 2,640 pounds. The real pressure is, however, less than this, as a portion of the power (sometimes set down at a third) is employed in overcoming friction. Still, this is not altogether lost, for it prevents the screw turning back when the pressure is removed. We have clearly two ways of increasing our gain in the screw, we can either lengthen our lever or make our threads closer; but we soon reach a practical limit to either of these, as the lever becomes inconveniently long, or else the threads so narrow that they are stripped off by the pressure. To obviate this difficulty, an arrangement-known, after the inventor, as Hunter's screw-was planned. Fig. 80 represents this. A hollow screw, A, of rather large diameter, is cut and made to work through a strong fixed nut; another screw, B, of smaller diameter is fixed to the upper board of the press, a female screw being out in the interior of the first, into which this may work. Supposing now that both screws have the same number of threads in a foot, the board will not move at all when the upper screw is turned, for the fixed screw will enter the hollow of it exactly the same distance as it is depressed. But if the upper one has, say 24 threads in a foot, and the othe. 25, the one will have moved downwards of a foot while the other will have risen only, and the board will be depressed by the difference between the two, which is of a foot. It is obvious that we may diminish as much as we like the difference between the two threads, without at all decreasing their strength, and the more nearly they are alike, the greater power we gain. The principle of this screw is very similar to that of the Chinese windlass, described in Lesson IX. is known as There is a modification of the screw, or rather a combination of it with the wheel and axle, which is frequently used. It the endless screw, and is represented in Fig. 81. A thread is cut upon an axle, which is turned by a winch, and the teeth of the wheel catch in the thread of the screw and are thus pressed forward as the winch is turned, each revolution advancing the wheel one tooth. Hence the winch must be turned as many times as there are teeth in the wheel in order to raise the weight a distance equal to the circumference of the axle; and since, in the ordinary wheel and axle, the power is to the weight as the radius of the wheel is to that of the axle, so here, the gain is expressed by the length of the arm to which the power is applied, multiplied by the number of teeth in the wheel, and divided by the radius of the axle. In all these cases it has been supposed that the screw has only one thread. Occasionally it has two, and then the gain is only one-half. Fig. 81. We must now give a few more examples for practice, and also the answers to those in our last lesson. EXAMPLES. 1. An ascent is 120 yards long, and rises in this length 10 feet: what power is required to sustain a weight of 7,236 pounds on it? 2. A road rises 1 foot in 25: what strain is required to sustain a wagon, weighing 1 ton, on the incline? 3. A wedge is 11 inches long and 2 inches thick: what resistance will a pressure of 112 pounds on its head overcome? 4. A screw has four threads in the inch: what force must be applied to a lever 1 foot long to press with a force of 3,000 pounds? 5. The lever of a screw is 2 feet 6 inches long, and is moved with a force of 6 pounds. Required the pressure, there being three threads to the inch. 6. In Hunter's screw, if one have 10 and the other 11 threads in a foot, and the lever is 1 foot 9 inches long,'what is the gain? 7. An endless screw is driven by a 12-inch crank. The axle is 2 inches in radius, and the wheel has 45 teeth. What weight will a power of 8 ounces sustain? ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN LESSON XI. 1. He must press with a force of 74 pounds. 2. Six feet from the heavier boy, as there the moments about the fulcrum will be equal, for 6×72=8×54. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XVI. THERE is nothing that will help more to form an English heart Ery, erie; compare together coop (a barrel), cooper, coopery; brew, brewer, brewery; smite, smith, smithy; and you see that the terminations ery, ry, or y, denote a place where a certain Similar is the force of the ending ary trade, etc., is carried on. and ory; as, aviary (Latin, avis, a bird), a bird-room; dormitory (Latin, dormio, I sleep), a sleeping-room; granary, a place for grain. Compare ary. "I can look at him (a national tiger) with an easy curiosity, as a prisoner within bars, in the menagerie of the Tower."—Burke, “Regicide Peace." Menagerie comes from the French menage, which is the origin of our manage, and both are from the Latin manu, with the hand, and ago, I drive, signifying to tame, to keep in order. Es or s is a suffix by which is formed the third person singular or verbs, and the plural of nouns; as, I read, he reads; ship, ships; box, boxes. When an apostrophe precedes the 8, as in man's, the genitive case is intended-e.g., man's book; God's word. Esque, a termination derived from the Latin iscus, through the Italian esco, and the French esque, is found in grotesque and picturesque. Grotesque means distorted, unnatural, and heterogeneous; from the strange and extravagant figures which were painted in the grottos or crypts of the ancient Romans. "An hideous figure of their foes they drew, Nor lines, nor looks, nor shades, nor colours true, Dryden. Picturesque is that which makes a picture, or may enter into a picture. " 'Picturesque properly means what is done in the style and with the spirit of a painter."-Stewart, " Philosophical Essays." Ess, derived from the Latin ir, the feminine of or; as adjutor, a helper; adjutrix, a female helper, converts masculine nouns into feminine e.g., abbot, abbess; actor, actress; prince, princess. Est, a verbal suffix, forming the second person singular of the present tense; as read, readest. It finds corresponding termina tions in the s of the Latin, as legis, thou readest; and the st of the Saxon, as barnst, thou burnest. This suffix is rapidly becoming obsolete, since the second person singular of the verb is Trench "On the Study of Words," pp. 25, 26, now rarely used; and in the cases in which it is chiefly usednamely, by the poets, and by the Society of Friends-the est is for the most part dropped. Indeed, but for its constant employment in the public prayers of Christian churches, it would now probably be wholly out of use. Nor would the language suffer by its discontinuance; for, as the person is marked by the pronoun thou, there is no occasion for any inflection of the verb, and such inflection abates the euphony, and diminishes the adaptability of our verbs. Et, as in turret (Latin, turris, a tower), is a diminutive, a small tower; coming to us from the Italian torretta. "Now like a maiden queen she will behold, From her high turrets, hourly suitors come; Dryden. Eth, the old termination of the third person singular of the present tense of the English verb; as eateth, found in part in the Latin legit, and found in full in the Anglo-Saxon bærneth, he burneth. "He that goeth forth and weepeth."-Ps. cxxvi, 6. Ette, of French origin, is found in words taken from the French; as, coquette, etiquette. Coquette is, with us, applied to a female who employs her personal attractions to gain attention from males. In French there is the word coquet, a male coquette. Coquet seems to come from coq, a cock, a showy and uxorious animal; and accordingly, it signifies a man who resembles a cock in his attention to woman. By a natural step in the progress of language, the term was applied to females. Coquet and coy at once her air, Both studied, though both seem neglected; Affecting to seem unaffected."—Congreve. Etiquette is the same word as our ticket, and originally denoted the short inscriptions, or tickets, put on packages of goods to point out what they contained. But similar etiquettes or tickets were employed to declare certain observances required in a public assembly; and so the word came to signify forms and formalities, a strict regard to custom; and in general, social conventionalism, particularly in relation to deportment. Eur, a French termination, from the Latin or: thus vendeur (a seller) is from the Latin venditor; proditeur, a betrayer, from the Latin proditor. It is similar in import to our ending er, and denotes an actor: for example, producteur, Fr. a producer. Of old many English words, now terminating in or, terminated in eur; as autheur for author. The termination is still retained in certain nouns denoting abstract qualities: for instance, grandeur (Latin, grandis, great); hauteur (French, haut, high), derived immediately from the French. The notion of the actor is retained in the French douceur (from the French doux, sweet), a sweetener; a fee, or bribe. Ever, connected in origin with the Latin ævum, age; and the Greek awv (i'-own), age, comes to us directly from the AngloSaxon afre, and signifies always, an enduring reality, either in time past (Ps. xxv. 6; xc. 2), time present (Ps. cxix. 98), or time to come (Ps. cxi. 5). Ever, as a suffix, strengthens the word to which it is appended: thus, "whatever you do" has more force than "what you do." Ever is found in other compounds; for example, whoever, however, wherever, whenever. Additional force is given by the insertion of the particle so; as whosoever, whencesoever, whithersoever. This so used to stand where ever is now placed; as, whoso, howso, whatso. "Her cursed tongue (full sharp and short) Spenser, "Faerie Queene." Full, of Saxon origin, obviously the same as the adjective full, gives an instance of the origin of these particles in words which originally had a definite form and signification. According to its root-meaning, full (now in combination written ful) denotes a large portion of the quality indicated by the word to which it is affixed; as, hate, hateful; thank, thankful; grateful, delightful. Full has for its opposite less; for example, merciful, merciless. In the employment of words, you cannot follow analogy alone, but must consult authority: thus, you may say penniless, but you cannot say penniful; yet pitiful is as good as pitiless. "How oft, my slice of pocket store consumed, Still hungering, pennyless, and far from home, I fed on scarlet hips and stony haws."-Cowper, “Task.” Fy is from the Latin facio, I make. Facio, in combination, becomes ficio, as in efficio. The fi in this word, written fy, is the particle under consideration. It is seen in fructify, literally, to make fruit; that is, to make fruitful. "Calling drunkenness, good-fellowship; pride, comeliness; rage, valour; bribery, gratification."-Bishop Morton. Head or hood, from the Saxon had, head, in composition, denotes the essence of any person or thing; its essential condition, viewed as a whole: thus, in Anglo-Saxon and English, manhad, manhood; wifhad, wifehood, or womanhood; cildhad, childhood; brotherhad, brotherhood; preosthad, priesthood. "Canst thou, by reason, more of godhead know, Than Plutarch, Seneca, or Cicero ?" Dryden, "Religio Laici." Head is sometimes employed with a more direct reference to the meaning which it has in current use; as in wronghead and wrongheaded, etc. "Much do I suffer, much to keep in peace, This jealous, waspish, wronghead, rhyming race."-Pope. "Whether we [the Irish] can propose to thrive so long as we entertain a wrongheaded distrust of England."-Bishop Berkeley. After a similar manner we use both heart and head, in fainthearted, lighthearted, hotheaded, lightheaded. Ible, see able, formerly explained under suffixes. Ic, ick, ich, have counterparts in the Latin termination icus, and the German ich, isch; as soporificus (Latin, sopor, sleepiness), soporific, rusticus (Latin, rus, the country), rustic, cildisc in AngloSaxon, childish in English; bookish. "The sweet showers of heaven that fell into the sea are turned into its brackish taste."-Bates. Ical, an adjective-ending, from the Latin icalis: for example, amicalis, amical (friendly), grammaticalis, grammatical; so critical (Greek, Kрivw, pronounced kri'-no, I judge), which passes into a noun by dropping al, as critic; so musical, music, mystical, mystic. "Fool, thou didst not understand The mystic language of the eye nor hand."-Donne. Пle, from the Latin adjective termination ilis, to be seen in docilis (Latin, doceo, I teach), docile, teachable; fragilis (Latin, frango, I break), fragile, easily broken. Some Latin adjectives in ilis are represented by adjectives in ful in our tongue, as utilis, useful. In, ine is from the Latin termination inus, which denotes sometimes a name, as Tarentine, an inhabitant of Tarentum, but in English more often a quality, as genuine, from the Latin genuinus, which is derived in its turn from genus, a kind or kind, in opposition to spurious, which, in its Latin meaning, race-that is, that which possesses the qualities belonging to its signifies a bastard. "We use No foreign gums, nor essence fetched from far, With far more genuine sweets refresh the sense."-Carew. Ing, in Anglo-Saxon, signifies son, as Edgar Atheling; that is, Edgar the son of Athel, or Edgar of noble blood. In English, ing sing; also a very large class of nouns; thus, singing itself may forms the ending of our active participles, as singing, from to These nouns, be employed as a noun, as the singing was good. as might be expected from the meaning of the Saxon ing, denote existence; thus, to sing is a verb, but singing is the active of the verb in actual being, When these words in ing are used as nouns they should have the government of nouns; thus, the singing of the birds was delightful. Almost every English verb may be made into a noun by the suffix ing; to eat, the eating; to diminish, the diminishing; to run, the running. Observe that the idea of activity is connected with nouns ending in ing; as, the seeing; the hearing; the dancing; the reporting-that is, the act, the process of dancing, reporting, etc.-wherein those nouns differ from other nouns which express the result of an action; as sight, the result of the act of seeing; report, the result of the act of reporting. The former have been called active, the latter class passive nouns, from the analogy they bear to active and passive verbs. LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XVI. FOREGROUNDS-HIGH LIGHTS-SETTING DRAWINGS, ETC. IN continuation of our remarks upon Foregrounds, we introduce in this lesson a group of dock-leaves. In the drawing, Fig. 108, we have shown how the principles we endeavoured to explain in the last lesson are to be carried out. The leaf in front represents in itself a summary of our observations. Notice the projecting part receiving the highest light; the dark cast shadow underneath being the strongest in the drawing. Notice, also, the cast shadow across the leaf (caused by the one on the left, which throws the under-leaf back, and brings out the one in light), commencing strongly near the high light, and gradually becoming will give additional character and truthfulness. It may not be necessary that these stems should be completed in the finished drawing, as probably their whole extent may not be seen; but the slight indication of their whereabouts may be useful for the purpose of adjusting the foliage according to the class of tree to be represented. This process is to be followed throughout the whole drawing. This, which we will call the first stage, must be done faintly, so that, with india-rubber-or, what is better for the softer kinds of paper, bread-crumbs-these marks may be weakened when the second stage is ready for commencement. In this portion of the work there must be no indecision, par ticulars must be entered into, especially those upon which the light falls. Amongst these will be found many that owe their lower in tone as it recedes; this, together with the manner of drawing the curved lines on the surfaces of the leaves, tends to give the perspective, and consequently assists in this way to determine the size of the leaf. Examples of this kind can be so easily obtained from Nature, that we prefer to leave the pupil to select them for himself, advising him to preserve them for use as we have recommended, and, when drawing from them, to allow his mind to recur to the previous remarks upon the principles we have laid before him, which apply not only to the drawing of a simple weed or dock-leaf, but have their neverfailing influence upon all subjects admissible in art. In the drawing of trees and the larger kinds of shrubs, we must urge the practice of being particularly careful of the outline, the first process of which must be confined to the general proportions and positions of the parts in light; and, at the same time, where it is possible, trace by a faint line the course of the stems, which prominence to sharp, clear terminations; and the distinctness of their forms will be in proportion to the amount of light which falls upon them. The stems previously and slightly traced may now receive in those parts in sight all the forcible and distinctive qualities they demand, even to the peculiarities observable upon the bark. At all times avoid a multiplicity of lines when one only will be sufficient. When we see, as we frequently do in the early attempts of beginners, a number of lines of all lengths and thicknesses muddled together, we can only attribute the practice to doubt and uncertainty; they are waiting to see the effect before they can make up their minds as to the one right line required. Such a proceeding indicates weakness, and creates confusion. If we were to extend our instructions beyond the single subject of a tree, and include the whole landscape generally, we could only repeat what has been said before, as our remarks are equally applicable to distances and mountains, where it |